Refactor type_from_string() to allow continuing after detecting an error

Refactor type_from_string() to allow continuing after detecting an error

In the next commits, we will enhance the fsck_tag() function to check
tag objects more thoroughly. To this end, we need a function to verify
that a given string is a valid object type, but that does not die() in
the negative case.

While at it, prepare type_from_string() for counted strings, i.e. strings
with an explicitly specified length rather than a NUL termination.

Signed-off-by: Johannes Schindelin <johannes.schindelin@gmx.de>
Signed-off-by: Junio C Hamano <gitster@pobox.com>