1 \input texinfo.tex @c -*- texinfo -*-
3 @setfilename bashref.info
4 @settitle Bash Reference Manual
10 This text is a brief description of the features that are present in
11 the Bash shell (version @value{VERSION}, @value{UPDATED}).
13 This is Edition @value{EDITION}, last updated @value{UPDATED},
14 of @cite{The GNU Bash Reference Manual},
15 for @code{Bash}, Version @value{VERSION}.
17 Copyright @copyright{} 1988--2022 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
20 Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
21 under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or
22 any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
23 Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
24 A copy of the license is included in the section entitled
25 ``GNU Free Documentation License''.
35 * Bash: (bash). The GNU Bourne-Again SHell.
41 @title Bash Reference Manual
42 @subtitle Reference Documentation for Bash
43 @subtitle Edition @value{EDITION}, for @code{Bash} Version @value{VERSION}.
44 @subtitle @value{UPDATED-MONTH}
45 @author Chet Ramey, Case Western Reserve University
46 @author Brian Fox, Free Software Foundation
49 @vskip 0pt plus 1filll
57 @node Top, Introduction, (dir), (dir)
60 This text is a brief description of the features that are present in
61 the Bash shell (version @value{VERSION}, @value{UPDATED}).
62 The Bash home page is @url{http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/}.
64 This is Edition @value{EDITION}, last updated @value{UPDATED},
65 of @cite{The GNU Bash Reference Manual},
66 for @code{Bash}, Version @value{VERSION}.
68 Bash contains features that appear in other popular shells, and some
69 features that only appear in Bash. Some of the shells that Bash has
70 borrowed concepts from are the Bourne Shell (@file{sh}), the Korn Shell
71 (@file{ksh}), and the C-shell (@file{csh} and its successor,
72 @file{tcsh}). The following menu breaks the features up into
73 categories, noting which features were inspired by other shells and
74 which are specific to Bash.
76 This manual is meant as a brief introduction to features found in
77 Bash. The Bash manual page should be used as the definitive
78 reference on shell behavior.
81 * Introduction:: An introduction to the shell.
82 * Definitions:: Some definitions used in the rest of this
84 * Basic Shell Features:: The shell "building blocks".
85 * Shell Builtin Commands:: Commands that are a part of the shell.
86 * Shell Variables:: Variables used or set by Bash.
87 * Bash Features:: Features found only in Bash.
88 * Job Control:: What job control is and how Bash allows you
90 * Command Line Editing:: Chapter describing the command line
92 * Using History Interactively:: Command History Expansion
93 * Installing Bash:: How to build and install Bash on your system.
94 * Reporting Bugs:: How to report bugs in Bash.
95 * Major Differences From The Bourne Shell:: A terse list of the differences
96 between Bash and historical
98 * GNU Free Documentation License:: Copying and sharing this documentation.
99 * Indexes:: Various indexes for this manual.
104 @chapter Introduction
106 * What is Bash?:: A short description of Bash.
107 * What is a shell?:: A brief introduction to shells.
111 @section What is Bash?
113 Bash is the shell, or command language interpreter,
114 for the @sc{gnu} operating system.
115 The name is an acronym for the @samp{Bourne-Again SHell},
116 a pun on Stephen Bourne, the author of the direct ancestor of
117 the current Unix shell @code{sh},
118 which appeared in the Seventh Edition Bell Labs Research version
121 Bash is largely compatible with @code{sh} and incorporates useful
122 features from the Korn shell @code{ksh} and the C shell @code{csh}.
123 It is intended to be a conformant implementation of the @sc{ieee}
124 @sc{posix} Shell and Tools portion of the @sc{ieee} @sc{posix}
125 specification (@sc{ieee} Standard 1003.1).
126 It offers functional improvements over @code{sh} for both interactive and
129 While the @sc{gnu} operating system provides other shells, including
130 a version of @code{csh}, Bash is the default shell.
131 Like other @sc{gnu} software, Bash is quite portable. It currently runs
132 on nearly every version of Unix and a few other operating systems @minus{}
133 independently-supported ports exist for @sc{ms-dos}, @sc{os/2},
134 and Windows platforms.
136 @node What is a shell?
137 @section What is a shell?
139 At its base, a shell is simply a macro processor that executes
140 commands. The term macro processor means functionality where text
141 and symbols are expanded to create larger expressions.
143 A Unix shell is both a command interpreter and a programming
144 language. As a command interpreter, the shell provides the user
145 interface to the rich set of @sc{gnu} utilities. The programming
146 language features allow these utilities to be combined.
147 Files containing commands can be created, and become
148 commands themselves. These new commands have the same status as
149 system commands in directories such as @file{/bin}, allowing users
150 or groups to establish custom environments to automate their common
153 Shells may be used interactively or non-interactively. In
154 interactive mode, they accept input typed from the keyboard.
155 When executing non-interactively, shells execute commands read
158 A shell allows execution of @sc{gnu} commands, both synchronously and
160 The shell waits for synchronous commands to complete before accepting
161 more input; asynchronous commands continue to execute in parallel
162 with the shell while it reads and executes additional commands.
163 The @dfn{redirection} constructs permit
164 fine-grained control of the input and output of those commands.
165 Moreover, the shell allows control over the contents of commands'
168 Shells also provide a small set of built-in
169 commands (@dfn{builtins}) implementing functionality impossible
170 or inconvenient to obtain via separate utilities.
171 For example, @code{cd}, @code{break}, @code{continue}, and
172 @code{exec} cannot be implemented outside of the shell because
173 they directly manipulate the shell itself.
174 The @code{history}, @code{getopts}, @code{kill}, or @code{pwd}
175 builtins, among others, could be implemented in separate utilities,
176 but they are more convenient to use as builtin commands.
177 All of the shell builtins are described in
180 While executing commands is essential, most of the power (and
181 complexity) of shells is due to their embedded programming
182 languages. Like any high-level language, the shell provides
183 variables, flow control constructs, quoting, and functions.
185 Shells offer features geared specifically for
186 interactive use rather than to augment the programming language.
187 These interactive features include job control, command line
188 editing, command history and aliases. Each of these features is
189 described in this manual.
193 These definitions are used throughout the remainder of this manual.
199 A family of open system standards based on Unix. Bash
200 is primarily concerned with the Shell and Utilities portion of the
201 @sc{posix} 1003.1 standard.
204 A space or tab character.
208 A command that is implemented internally by the shell itself, rather
209 than by an executable program somewhere in the file system.
211 @item control operator
212 @cindex control operator
213 A @code{token} that performs a control function. It is a @code{newline}
214 or one of the following:
215 @samp{||}, @samp{&&}, @samp{&}, @samp{;}, @samp{;;}, @samp{;&}, @samp{;;&},
216 @samp{|}, @samp{|&}, @samp{(}, or @samp{)}.
220 The value returned by a command to its caller. The value is restricted
221 to eight bits, so the maximum value is 255.
225 A unit of text that is the result of one of the shell expansions. After
226 expansion, when executing a command, the resulting fields are used as
227 the command name and arguments.
231 A string of characters used to identify a file.
235 A set of processes comprising a pipeline, and any processes descended
236 from it, that are all in the same process group.
240 A mechanism by which users can selectively stop (suspend) and restart
241 (resume) execution of processes.
244 @cindex metacharacter
245 A character that, when unquoted, separates words. A metacharacter is
246 a @code{space}, @code{tab}, @code{newline}, or one of the following characters:
247 @samp{|}, @samp{&}, @samp{;}, @samp{(}, @samp{)}, @samp{<}, or
253 A @code{word} consisting solely of letters, numbers, and underscores,
254 and beginning with a letter or underscore. @code{Name}s are used as
255 shell variable and function names.
256 Also referred to as an @code{identifier}.
259 @cindex operator, shell
260 A @code{control operator} or a @code{redirection operator}.
261 @xref{Redirections}, for a list of redirection operators.
262 Operators contain at least one unquoted @code{metacharacter}.
265 @cindex process group
266 A collection of related processes each having the same process
269 @item process group ID
270 @cindex process group ID
271 A unique identifier that represents a @code{process group}
275 @cindex reserved word
276 A @code{word} that has a special meaning to the shell. Most reserved
277 words introduce shell flow control constructs, such as @code{for} and
281 @cindex return status
282 A synonym for @code{exit status}.
286 A mechanism by which a process may be notified by the kernel
287 of an event occurring in the system.
289 @item special builtin
290 @cindex special builtin
291 A shell builtin command that has been classified as special by the
296 A sequence of characters considered a single unit by the shell.
297 It is either a @code{word} or an @code{operator}.
301 A sequence of characters treated as a unit by the shell.
302 Words may not include unquoted @code{metacharacters}.
305 @node Basic Shell Features
306 @chapter Basic Shell Features
309 Bash is an acronym for @samp{Bourne-Again SHell}.
311 the traditional Unix shell originally written by Stephen Bourne.
312 All of the Bourne shell builtin commands are available in Bash,
313 The rules for evaluation and quoting are taken from the @sc{posix}
314 specification for the `standard' Unix shell.
316 This chapter briefly summarizes the shell's `building blocks':
317 commands, control structures, shell functions, shell @i{parameters},
319 @i{redirections}, which are a way to direct input and output from
320 and to named files, and how the shell executes commands.
323 * Shell Syntax:: What your input means to the shell.
324 * Shell Commands:: The types of commands you can use.
325 * Shell Functions:: Grouping commands by name.
326 * Shell Parameters:: How the shell stores values.
327 * Shell Expansions:: How Bash expands parameters and the various
328 expansions available.
329 * Redirections:: A way to control where input and output go.
330 * Executing Commands:: What happens when you run a command.
331 * Shell Scripts:: Executing files of shell commands.
335 @section Shell Syntax
337 * Shell Operation:: The basic operation of the shell.
338 * Quoting:: How to remove the special meaning from characters.
339 * Comments:: How to specify comments.
342 When the shell reads input, it proceeds through a
343 sequence of operations. If the input indicates the beginning of a
344 comment, the shell ignores the comment symbol (@samp{#}), and the rest
347 Otherwise, roughly speaking, the shell reads its input and
348 divides the input into words and operators, employing the quoting rules
349 to select which meanings to assign various words and characters.
351 The shell then parses these tokens into commands and other constructs,
352 removes the special meaning of certain words or characters, expands
353 others, redirects input and output as needed, executes the specified
354 command, waits for the command's exit status, and makes that exit status
355 available for further inspection or processing.
357 @node Shell Operation
358 @subsection Shell Operation
360 The following is a brief description of the shell's operation when it
361 reads and executes a command. Basically, the shell does the
366 Reads its input from a file (@pxref{Shell Scripts}), from a string
367 supplied as an argument to the @option{-c} invocation option
368 (@pxref{Invoking Bash}), or from the user's terminal.
371 Breaks the input into words and operators, obeying the quoting rules
372 described in @ref{Quoting}. These tokens are separated by
373 @code{metacharacters}. Alias expansion is performed by this step
377 Parses the tokens into simple and compound commands
378 (@pxref{Shell Commands}).
381 Performs the various shell expansions (@pxref{Shell Expansions}), breaking
382 the expanded tokens into lists of filenames (@pxref{Filename Expansion})
383 and commands and arguments.
386 Performs any necessary redirections (@pxref{Redirections}) and removes
387 the redirection operators and their operands from the argument list.
390 Executes the command (@pxref{Executing Commands}).
393 Optionally waits for the command to complete and collects its exit
394 status (@pxref{Exit Status}).
402 * Escape Character:: How to remove the special meaning from a single
404 * Single Quotes:: How to inhibit all interpretation of a sequence
406 * Double Quotes:: How to suppress most of the interpretation of a
407 sequence of characters.
408 * ANSI-C Quoting:: How to expand ANSI-C sequences in quoted strings.
409 * Locale Translation:: How to translate strings into different languages.
412 Quoting is used to remove the special meaning of certain
413 characters or words to the shell. Quoting can be used to
414 disable special treatment for special characters, to prevent
415 reserved words from being recognized as such, and to prevent
418 Each of the shell metacharacters (@pxref{Definitions})
419 has special meaning to the shell and must be quoted if it is to
421 When the command history expansion facilities are being used
422 (@pxref{History Interaction}), the
423 @dfn{history expansion} character, usually @samp{!}, must be quoted
424 to prevent history expansion. @xref{Bash History Facilities}, for
425 more details concerning history expansion.
427 There are three quoting mechanisms: the
428 @dfn{escape character}, single quotes, and double quotes.
430 @node Escape Character
431 @subsubsection Escape Character
432 A non-quoted backslash @samp{\} is the Bash escape character.
433 It preserves the literal value of the next character that follows,
434 with the exception of @code{newline}. If a @code{\newline} pair
435 appears, and the backslash itself is not quoted, the @code{\newline}
436 is treated as a line continuation (that is, it is removed from
437 the input stream and effectively ignored).
440 @subsubsection Single Quotes
442 Enclosing characters in single quotes (@samp{'}) preserves the literal value
443 of each character within the quotes. A single quote may not occur
444 between single quotes, even when preceded by a backslash.
447 @subsubsection Double Quotes
449 Enclosing characters in double quotes (@samp{"}) preserves the literal value
450 of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of
451 @samp{$}, @samp{`}, @samp{\},
452 and, when history expansion is enabled, @samp{!}.
454 @sc{posix} mode (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}),
455 the @samp{!} has no special meaning
456 within double quotes, even when history expansion is enabled.
457 The characters @samp{$} and @samp{`}
458 retain their special meaning within double quotes (@pxref{Shell Expansions}).
459 The backslash retains its special meaning only when followed by one of
460 the following characters:
461 @samp{$}, @samp{`}, @samp{"}, @samp{\}, or @code{newline}.
462 Within double quotes, backslashes that are followed by one of these
463 characters are removed. Backslashes preceding characters without a
464 special meaning are left unmodified.
465 A double quote may be quoted within double quotes by preceding it with
467 If enabled, history expansion will be performed unless an @samp{!}
468 appearing in double quotes is escaped using a backslash.
469 The backslash preceding the @samp{!} is not removed.
471 The special parameters @samp{*} and @samp{@@} have special meaning
472 when in double quotes (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
475 @subsubsection ANSI-C Quoting
476 @cindex quoting, ANSI
478 Character sequences of the form $'@var{string}' are treated as a special
479 kind of single quotes.
480 The sequence expands to @var{string}, with backslash-escaped characters
481 in @var{string} replaced as specified by the ANSI C standard.
482 Backslash escape sequences, if present, are decoded as follows:
491 an escape character (not ANSI C)
511 the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value @var{nnn}
512 (one to three octal digits)
514 the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value @var{HH}
515 (one or two hex digits)
517 the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value
518 @var{HHHH} (one to four hex digits)
519 @item \U@var{HHHHHHHH}
520 the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value
521 @var{HHHHHHHH} (one to eight hex digits)
523 a control-@var{x} character
527 The expanded result is single-quoted, as if the dollar sign had not
530 @node Locale Translation
531 @subsubsection Locale-Specific Translation
533 @cindex internationalization
534 @cindex native languages
535 @cindex translation, native languages
537 * Creating Internationalized Scripts:: How to use translations and different
538 languages in your scripts.
541 Prefixing a double-quoted string with a dollar sign (@samp{$}), such
542 as @verb{|$"hello, world"|},
543 will cause the string to be translated according to the current locale.
544 The @code{gettext} infrastructure performs the lookup and
545 translation, using the @code{LC_MESSAGES}, @code{TEXTDOMAINDIR},
546 and @code{TEXTDOMAIN} shell variables, as explained below.
547 See the gettext documentation for additional details not covered here.
548 If the current locale is @code{C} or @code{POSIX},
549 if there are no translations available,
550 of if the string is not translated,
551 the dollar sign is ignored.
552 Since this is a form of double quoting, the string remains double-quoted
553 by default, whether or not it is translated and replaced.
554 If the @code{noexpand_translation} option is enabled
555 using the @code{shopt} builtin (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}),
556 translated strings are single-quoted instead of double-quoted.
558 The rest of this section is a brief overview of how you use gettext to
559 create translations for strings in a shell script named @var{scriptname}.
560 There are more details in the gettext documentation.
562 @node Creating Internationalized Scripts
563 @cindex internationalized scripts
564 @cindex string translations
565 Once you've marked the strings in your script
566 that you want to translate using $"...",
567 you create a gettext "template" file using the command
570 bash --dump-po-strings @var{scriptname} > @var{domain}.pot
574 The @var{domain} is your @dfn{message domain}.
575 It's just an arbitrary string that's used to identify the files gettext
576 needs, like a package or script name.
577 It needs to be unique among all
578 the message domains on systems where you install the translations, so
579 gettext knows which translations correspond to your script.
580 You'll use the template file to create translations for each target language.
581 The template file conventionally has the suffix @samp{.pot}.
583 You copy this template file to a separate file for each target language
584 you want to support (called "PO" files, which use the suffix @samp{.po}).
585 PO files use various naming conventions, but
586 when you are working to translate a template file into a particular
587 language, you first copy the template file to a file whose name is the
588 language you want to target, with the @samp{.po} suffix.
589 For instance, the Spanish translations of your strings would be
590 in a file named @samp{es.po}, and to get started using a message
591 domain named "example," you would run
598 Ultimately, PO files are often named @var{domain}.po and installed in
599 directories that contain multiple translation files for a particular language.
601 Whichever naming convention you choose, you will need to translate the
602 strings in the PO files into the appropriate languages.
603 This has to be done manually.
605 When you have the translations and PO files complete, you'll use the
606 gettext tools to produce what are called "MO" files, which are compiled
607 versions of the PO files the gettext tools use to look up translations
609 MO files are also called "message catalog" files.
610 You use the @command{msgfmt} program to do this.
611 For instance, if you had a file with Spanish translations, you could run
614 msgfmt -o es.mo es.po
618 to produce the corresponding MO file.
620 Once you have the MO files, you decide where to install them and use the
621 @code{TEXTDOMAINDIR} shell variable to tell the gettext tools where they are.
622 Make sure to use the same message domain to name the MO files
623 as you did for the PO files when you install them.
628 @vindex TEXTDOMAINDIR
629 Your users will use the @env{LANG} or @env{LC_MESSAGES} shell variables to
630 select the desired language.
632 You set the @env{TEXTDOMAIN} variable to the script's message domain.
633 As above, you use the message domain to name your translation files.
635 You, or possibly your users, set the @env{TEXTDOMAINDIR} variable to the
636 name of a directory where the message catalog files are stored.
637 If you install the message files into the system's standard message catalog
638 directory, you don't need to worry about this variable.
640 The directory where the message catalog files are stored varies between
642 Some use the message catalog selected by the @env{LC_MESSAGES}
644 Others create the name of the message catalog from the value of the
645 @env{TEXTDOMAIN} shell variable, possibly adding the @samp{.mo} suffix.
646 If you use the @env{TEXTDOMAIN} variable, you may need to set the
647 @env{TEXTDOMAINDIR} variable to the location of the message catalog files,
649 It's common to use both variables in this fashion:
650 @env{$TEXTDOMAINDIR}/@env{$LC_MESSAGES}/LC_MESSAGES/@env{$TEXTDOMAIN}.mo.
652 If you used that last convention, and you wanted to store the message
653 catalog files with Spanish (es) and Esperanto (eo) translations into a
654 local directory you use for custom translation files, you could run
658 TEXTDOMAINDIR=/usr/local/share/locale
660 cp es.mo $@{TEXTDOMAINDIR@}/es/LC_MESSAGES/$@{TEXTDOMAIN@}.mo
661 cp eo.mo $@{TEXTDOMAINDIR@}/eo/LC_MESSAGES/$@{TEXTDOMAIN@}.mo
664 When all of this is done, and the message catalog files containing the
665 compiled translations are installed in the correct location,
666 your users will be able to see translated strings
667 in any of the supported languages by setting the @env{LANG} or
668 @env{LC_MESSAGES} environment variables before running your script.
672 @cindex comments, shell
674 In a non-interactive shell, or an interactive shell in which the
675 @code{interactive_comments} option to the @code{shopt}
676 builtin is enabled (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}),
677 a word beginning with @samp{#}
678 causes that word and all remaining characters on that line to
679 be ignored. An interactive shell without the @code{interactive_comments}
680 option enabled does not allow comments. The @code{interactive_comments}
681 option is on by default in interactive shells.
682 @xref{Interactive Shells}, for a description of what makes
686 @section Shell Commands
687 @cindex commands, shell
689 A simple shell command such as @code{echo a b c} consists of the command
690 itself followed by arguments, separated by spaces.
692 More complex shell commands are composed of simple commands arranged together
693 in a variety of ways: in a pipeline in which the output of one command
694 becomes the input of a second, in a loop or conditional construct, or in
698 * Reserved Words:: Words that have special meaning to the shell.
699 * Simple Commands:: The most common type of command.
700 * Pipelines:: Connecting the input and output of several
702 * Lists:: How to execute commands sequentially.
703 * Compound Commands:: Shell commands for control flow.
704 * Coprocesses:: Two-way communication between commands.
705 * GNU Parallel:: Running commands in parallel.
709 @subsection Reserved Words
710 @cindex reserved words
712 Reserved words are words that have special meaning to the shell.
713 They are used to begin and end the shell's compound commands.
715 The following words are recognized as reserved when unquoted and
716 the first word of a command (see below for exceptions):
718 @multitable @columnfractions .1 .1 .1 .1 .12 .1
719 @item @code{if} @tab @code{then} @tab @code{elif}
720 @tab @code{else} @tab @code{fi} @tab @code{time}
721 @item @code{for} @tab @code{in} @tab @code{until}
722 @tab @code{while} @tab @code{do} @tab @code{done}
723 @item @code{case} @tab @code{esac} @tab @code{coproc}
724 @tab @code{select} @tab @code{function}
725 @item @code{@{} @tab @code{@}} @tab @code{[[} @tab @code{]]} @tab @code{!}
729 @code{in} is recognized as a reserved word if it is the third word of a
730 @code{case} or @code{select} command.
731 @code{in} and @code{do} are recognized as reserved
732 words if they are the third word in a @code{for} command.
734 @node Simple Commands
735 @subsection Simple Commands
736 @cindex commands, simple
738 A simple command is the kind of command encountered most often.
739 It's just a sequence of words separated by @code{blank}s, terminated
740 by one of the shell's control operators (@pxref{Definitions}). The
741 first word generally specifies a command to be executed, with the
742 rest of the words being that command's arguments.
744 The return status (@pxref{Exit Status}) of a simple command is
745 its exit status as provided
746 by the @sc{posix} 1003.1 @code{waitpid} function, or 128+@var{n} if
747 the command was terminated by signal @var{n}.
750 @subsection Pipelines
752 @cindex commands, pipelines
754 A @code{pipeline} is a sequence of one or more commands separated by
755 one of the control operators @samp{|} or @samp{|&}.
759 @cindex command timing
760 The format for a pipeline is
762 [time [-p]] [!] @var{command1} [ | or |& @var{command2} ] @dots{}
766 The output of each command in the pipeline is connected via a pipe
767 to the input of the next command.
768 That is, each command reads the previous command's output. This
769 connection is performed before any redirections specified by
772 If @samp{|&} is used, @var{command1}'s standard error, in addition to
773 its standard output, is connected to
774 @var{command2}'s standard input through the pipe;
775 it is shorthand for @code{2>&1 |}.
776 This implicit redirection of the standard error to the standard output is
777 performed after any redirections specified by @var{command1}.
779 The reserved word @code{time} causes timing statistics
780 to be printed for the pipeline once it finishes.
781 The statistics currently consist of elapsed (wall-clock) time and
782 user and system time consumed by the command's execution.
783 The @option{-p} option changes the output format to that specified
785 When the shell is in @sc{posix} mode (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}),
786 it does not recognize @code{time} as a reserved word if the next
787 token begins with a @samp{-}.
788 The @env{TIMEFORMAT} variable may be set to a format string that
789 specifies how the timing information should be displayed.
790 @xref{Bash Variables}, for a description of the available formats.
791 The use of @code{time} as a reserved word permits the timing of
792 shell builtins, shell functions, and pipelines. An external
793 @code{time} command cannot time these easily.
795 When the shell is in @sc{posix} mode (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}), @code{time}
796 may be followed by a newline. In this case, the shell displays the
797 total user and system time consumed by the shell and its children.
798 The @env{TIMEFORMAT} variable may be used to specify the format of
799 the time information.
801 If the pipeline is not executed asynchronously (@pxref{Lists}), the
802 shell waits for all commands in the pipeline to complete.
804 Each command in a multi-command pipeline,
805 where pipes are created,
806 is executed in its own @dfn{subshell}, which is a
807 separate process (@pxref{Command Execution Environment}).
808 If the @code{lastpipe} option is enabled using the @code{shopt} builtin
809 (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}),
810 the last element of a pipeline may be run by the shell process
811 when job control is not active.
814 status of a pipeline is the exit status of the last command in the
815 pipeline, unless the @code{pipefail} option is enabled
816 (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
817 If @code{pipefail} is enabled, the pipeline's return status is the
818 value of the last (rightmost) command to exit with a non-zero status,
819 or zero if all commands exit successfully.
820 If the reserved word @samp{!} precedes the pipeline, the
821 exit status is the logical negation of the exit status as described
823 The shell waits for all commands in the pipeline to terminate before
827 @subsection Lists of Commands
828 @cindex commands, lists
830 A @code{list} is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by one
831 of the operators @samp{;}, @samp{&}, @samp{&&}, or @samp{||},
832 and optionally terminated by one of @samp{;}, @samp{&}, or a
835 Of these list operators, @samp{&&} and @samp{||}
836 have equal precedence, followed by @samp{;} and @samp{&},
837 which have equal precedence.
839 A sequence of one or more newlines may appear in a @code{list}
840 to delimit commands, equivalent to a semicolon.
842 If a command is terminated by the control operator @samp{&},
843 the shell executes the command asynchronously in a subshell.
844 This is known as executing the command in the @dfn{background},
845 and these are referred to as @dfn{asynchronous} commands.
846 The shell does not wait for the command to finish, and the return
848 When job control is not active (@pxref{Job Control}),
849 the standard input for asynchronous commands, in the absence of any
850 explicit redirections, is redirected from @code{/dev/null}.
852 Commands separated by a @samp{;} are executed sequentially; the shell
853 waits for each command to terminate in turn. The return status is the
854 exit status of the last command executed.
856 @sc{and} and @sc{or} lists are sequences of one or more pipelines
857 separated by the control operators @samp{&&} and @samp{||},
858 respectively. @sc{and} and @sc{or} lists are executed with left
861 An @sc{and} list has the form
863 @var{command1} && @var{command2}
867 @var{command2} is executed if, and only if, @var{command1}
868 returns an exit status of zero (success).
870 An @sc{or} list has the form
872 @var{command1} || @var{command2}
876 @var{command2} is executed if, and only if, @var{command1}
877 returns a non-zero exit status.
880 @sc{and} and @sc{or} lists is the exit status of the last command
881 executed in the list.
883 @node Compound Commands
884 @subsection Compound Commands
885 @cindex commands, compound
888 * Looping Constructs:: Shell commands for iterative action.
889 * Conditional Constructs:: Shell commands for conditional execution.
890 * Command Grouping:: Ways to group commands.
893 Compound commands are the shell programming language constructs.
894 Each construct begins with a reserved word or control operator and is
895 terminated by a corresponding reserved word or operator.
896 Any redirections (@pxref{Redirections}) associated with a compound command
897 apply to all commands within that compound command unless explicitly overridden.
899 In most cases a list of commands in a compound command's description may be
900 separated from the rest of the command by one or more newlines, and may be
901 followed by a newline in place of a semicolon.
903 Bash provides looping constructs, conditional commands, and mechanisms
904 to group commands and execute them as a unit.
906 @node Looping Constructs
907 @subsubsection Looping Constructs
908 @cindex commands, looping
910 Bash supports the following looping constructs.
912 Note that wherever a @samp{;} appears in the description of a
913 command's syntax, it may be replaced with one or more newlines.
920 The syntax of the @code{until} command is:
923 until @var{test-commands}; do @var{consequent-commands}; done
926 Execute @var{consequent-commands} as long as
927 @var{test-commands} has an exit status which is not zero.
928 The return status is the exit status of the last command executed
929 in @var{consequent-commands}, or zero if none was executed.
933 The syntax of the @code{while} command is:
936 while @var{test-commands}; do @var{consequent-commands}; done
939 Execute @var{consequent-commands} as long as
940 @var{test-commands} has an exit status of zero.
941 The return status is the exit status of the last command executed
942 in @var{consequent-commands}, or zero if none was executed.
946 The syntax of the @code{for} command is:
949 for @var{name} [ [in [@var{words} @dots{}] ] ; ] do @var{commands}; done
952 Expand @var{words} (@pxref{Shell Expansions}), and execute @var{commands}
954 in the resultant list, with @var{name} bound to the current member.
955 If @samp{in @var{words}} is not present, the @code{for} command
956 executes the @var{commands} once for each positional parameter that is
957 set, as if @samp{in "$@@"} had been specified
958 (@pxref{Special Parameters}).
960 The return status is the exit status of the last command that executes.
961 If there are no items in the expansion of @var{words}, no commands are
962 executed, and the return status is zero.
964 An alternate form of the @code{for} command is also supported:
967 for (( @var{expr1} ; @var{expr2} ; @var{expr3} )) ; do @var{commands} ; done
970 First, the arithmetic expression @var{expr1} is evaluated according
971 to the rules described below (@pxref{Shell Arithmetic}).
972 The arithmetic expression @var{expr2} is then evaluated repeatedly
973 until it evaluates to zero.
974 Each time @var{expr2} evaluates to a non-zero value, @var{commands} are
975 executed and the arithmetic expression @var{expr3} is evaluated.
976 If any expression is omitted, it behaves as if it evaluates to 1.
977 The return value is the exit status of the last command in @var{commands}
978 that is executed, or false if any of the expressions is invalid.
981 The @code{break} and @code{continue} builtins (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins})
982 may be used to control loop execution.
984 @node Conditional Constructs
985 @subsubsection Conditional Constructs
986 @cindex commands, conditional
995 The syntax of the @code{if} command is:
998 if @var{test-commands}; then
999 @var{consequent-commands};
1000 [elif @var{more-test-commands}; then
1001 @var{more-consequents};]
1002 [else @var{alternate-consequents};]
1006 The @var{test-commands} list is executed, and if its return status is zero,
1007 the @var{consequent-commands} list is executed.
1008 If @var{test-commands} returns a non-zero status, each @code{elif} list
1009 is executed in turn, and if its exit status is zero,
1010 the corresponding @var{more-consequents} is executed and the
1012 If @samp{else @var{alternate-consequents}} is present, and
1013 the final command in the final @code{if} or @code{elif} clause
1014 has a non-zero exit status, then @var{alternate-consequents} is executed.
1015 The return status is the exit status of the last command executed, or
1016 zero if no condition tested true.
1022 The syntax of the @code{case} command is:
1026 [ [(] @var{pattern} [| @var{pattern}]@dots{}) @var{command-list} ;;]@dots{}
1030 @code{case} will selectively execute the @var{command-list} corresponding to
1031 the first @var{pattern} that matches @var{word}.
1032 The match is performed according
1033 to the rules described below in @ref{Pattern Matching}.
1034 If the @code{nocasematch} shell option
1035 (see the description of @code{shopt} in @ref{The Shopt Builtin})
1036 is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case
1037 of alphabetic characters.
1038 The @samp{|} is used to separate multiple patterns, and the @samp{)}
1039 operator terminates a pattern list.
1040 A list of patterns and an associated command-list is known
1043 Each clause must be terminated with @samp{;;}, @samp{;&}, or @samp{;;&}.
1044 The @var{word} undergoes tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command
1045 substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal
1046 (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion})
1047 before matching is attempted.
1048 Each @var{pattern} undergoes tilde expansion, parameter expansion,
1049 command substitution, arithmetic expansion, process substitution, and
1052 There may be an arbitrary number of @code{case} clauses, each terminated
1053 by a @samp{;;}, @samp{;&}, or @samp{;;&}.
1054 The first pattern that matches determines the
1055 command-list that is executed.
1056 It's a common idiom to use @samp{*} as the final pattern to define the
1057 default case, since that pattern will always match.
1059 Here is an example using @code{case} in a script that could be used to
1060 describe one interesting feature of an animal:
1063 echo -n "Enter the name of an animal: "
1065 echo -n "The $ANIMAL has "
1067 horse | dog | cat) echo -n "four";;
1068 man | kangaroo ) echo -n "two";;
1069 *) echo -n "an unknown number of";;
1076 If the @samp{;;} operator is used, no subsequent matches are attempted after
1077 the first pattern match.
1078 Using @samp{;&} in place of @samp{;;} causes execution to continue with
1079 the @var{command-list} associated with the next clause, if any.
1080 Using @samp{;;&} in place of @samp{;;} causes the shell to test the patterns
1081 in the next clause, if any, and execute any associated @var{command-list}
1082 on a successful match,
1083 continuing the case statement execution as if the pattern list had not matched.
1085 The return status is zero if no @var{pattern} is matched. Otherwise, the
1086 return status is the exit status of the @var{command-list} executed.
1091 The @code{select} construct allows the easy generation of menus.
1092 It has almost the same syntax as the @code{for} command:
1095 select @var{name} [in @var{words} @dots{}]; do @var{commands}; done
1098 The list of words following @code{in} is expanded, generating a list
1099 of items, and the set of expanded words is printed on the standard
1100 error output stream, each preceded by a number. If the
1101 @samp{in @var{words}} is omitted, the positional parameters are printed,
1102 as if @samp{in "$@@"} had been specified.
1103 @code{select} then displays the @env{PS3}
1104 prompt and reads a line from the standard input.
1105 If the line consists of a number corresponding to one of the displayed
1106 words, then the value of @var{name} is set to that word.
1107 If the line is empty, the words and prompt are displayed again.
1108 If @code{EOF} is read, the @code{select} command completes and returns 1.
1109 Any other value read causes @var{name} to be set to null.
1110 The line read is saved in the variable @env{REPLY}.
1112 The @var{commands} are executed after each selection until a
1113 @code{break} command is executed, at which
1114 point the @code{select} command completes.
1116 Here is an example that allows the user to pick a filename from the
1117 current directory, and displays the name and index of the file
1123 echo you picked $fname \($REPLY\)
1130 (( @var{expression} ))
1133 The arithmetic @var{expression} is evaluated according to the rules
1134 described below (@pxref{Shell Arithmetic}).
1135 The @var{expression} undergoes the same expansions
1136 as if it were within double quotes,
1137 but double quote characters in @var{expression} are not treated specially
1139 If the value of the expression is non-zero, the return status is 0;
1140 otherwise the return status is 1.
1147 [[ @var{expression} ]]
1150 Return a status of 0 or 1 depending on the evaluation of
1151 the conditional expression @var{expression}.
1152 Expressions are composed of the primaries described below in
1153 @ref{Bash Conditional Expressions}.
1154 The words between the @code{[[} and @code{]]} do not undergo word splitting
1155 and filename expansion.
1156 The shell performs tilde expansion, parameter and
1157 variable expansion, arithmetic expansion, command substitution, process
1158 substitution, and quote removal on those words
1159 (the expansions that would occur if the words were enclosed in double quotes).
1160 Conditional operators such as @samp{-f} must be unquoted to be recognized
1163 When used with @code{[[}, the @samp{<} and @samp{>} operators sort
1164 lexicographically using the current locale.
1166 When the @samp{==} and @samp{!=} operators are used, the string to the
1167 right of the operator is considered a pattern and matched according
1168 to the rules described below in @ref{Pattern Matching},
1169 as if the @code{extglob} shell option were enabled.
1170 The @samp{=} operator is identical to @samp{==}.
1171 If the @code{nocasematch} shell option
1172 (see the description of @code{shopt} in @ref{The Shopt Builtin})
1173 is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case
1174 of alphabetic characters.
1175 The return value is 0 if the string matches (@samp{==}) or does not
1176 match (@samp{!=}) the pattern, and 1 otherwise.
1178 If you quote any part of the pattern,
1179 using any of the shell's quoting mechanisms,
1180 the quoted portion is matched literally.
1181 This means every character in the quoted portion matches itself,
1182 instead of having any special pattern matching meaning.
1184 An additional binary operator, @samp{=~}, is available, with the same
1185 precedence as @samp{==} and @samp{!=}.
1186 When you use @samp{=~}, the string to the right of the operator is considered
1187 a @sc{posix} extended regular expression pattern and matched accordingly
1188 (using the @sc{posix} @code{regcomp} and @code{regexec} interfaces
1189 usually described in @i{regex}(3)).
1190 The return value is 0 if the string matches the pattern, and 1 if it does not.
1191 If the regular expression is syntactically incorrect, the conditional
1192 expression returns 2.
1193 If the @code{nocasematch} shell option
1194 (see the description of @code{shopt} in @ref{The Shopt Builtin})
1195 is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case
1196 of alphabetic characters.
1198 You can quote any part of the pattern
1199 to force the quoted portion to be matched literally
1200 instead of as a regular expression (see above).
1201 If the pattern is stored in a shell variable, quoting the variable
1202 expansion forces the entire pattern to be matched literally.
1204 The pattern will match if it matches any part of the string.
1205 If you want to force the pattern to match the entire string,
1206 anchor the pattern using the @samp{^} and @samp{$} regular expression
1209 For example, the following will match a line
1210 (stored in the shell variable @code{line})
1211 if there is a sequence of characters anywhere in the value consisting of
1212 any number, including zero, of
1213 characters in the @code{space} character class,
1214 immediately followed by zero or one instances of @samp{a},
1218 [[ $line =~ [[:space:]]*(a)?b ]]
1222 That means values for @code{line} like
1223 @samp{aab}, @samp{ aaaaaab}, @samp{xaby}, and @samp{ ab}
1225 as will a line containing a @samp{b} anywhere in its value.
1227 If you want to match a character that's special to the regular expression
1228 grammar (@samp{^$|[]()\.*+?}), it has to be quoted to remove its special
1230 This means that in the pattern @samp{xxx.txt}, the @samp{.} matches any
1231 character in the string (its usual regular expression meaning), but in the
1232 pattern @samp{"xxx.txt"}, it can only match a literal @samp{.}.
1234 Likewise, if you want to include a character in your pattern that has a
1235 special meaning to the regular expression grammar, you must make sure it's
1237 If you want to anchor a pattern at the beginning or end of the string,
1238 for instance, you cannot quote the @samp{^} or @samp{$}
1239 characters using any form of shell quoting.
1241 If you want to match @samp{initial string} at the start of a line,
1242 the following will work:
1244 [[ $line =~ ^"initial string" ]]
1249 [[ $line =~ "^initial string" ]]
1252 because in the second example the @samp{^} is quoted and doesn't have its
1253 usual special meaning.
1255 It is sometimes difficult to specify a regular expression properly
1256 without using quotes, or to keep track of the quoting used by regular
1257 expressions while paying attention to
1258 shell quoting and the shell's quote removal.
1259 Storing the regular expression in a shell variable is often a useful
1260 way to avoid problems with quoting characters that are special to the
1262 For example, the following is equivalent to the pattern used above:
1265 pattern='[[:space:]]*(a)?b'
1266 [[ $line =~ $pattern ]]
1269 Shell programmers should take special care with backslashes, since
1270 backslashes are used by both the shell and regular expressions to remove
1271 the special meaning from the following character.
1272 This means that after the shell's word expansions complete
1273 (@pxref{Shell Expansions}),
1274 any backslashes remaining in parts of the pattern
1275 that were originally not quoted can remove the
1276 special meaning of pattern characters.
1277 If any part of the pattern is quoted, the shell does its best to ensure that
1278 the regular expression treats those remaining backslashes as literal,
1279 if they appeared in a quoted portion.
1281 The following two sets of commands are @emph{not} equivalent:
1289 [[ . =~ "$pattern" ]]
1294 The first two matches will succeed, but the second two will not, because
1295 in the second two the backslash will be part of the pattern to be matched.
1296 In the first two examples, the pattern passed to the regular expression
1297 parser is @samp{\.}. The backslash removes the special meaning from
1298 @samp{.}, so the literal @samp{.} matches.
1299 In the second two examples, the pattern passed to the regular expression
1300 parser has the backslash quoted (e.g., @samp{\\\.}), which will not match
1301 the string, since it does not contain a backslash.
1302 If the string in the first examples were anything other than @samp{.}, say
1303 @samp{a}, the pattern would not match, because the quoted @samp{.} in the
1304 pattern loses its special meaning of matching any single character.
1306 Bracket expressions in regular expressions can be sources of errors as well,
1307 since characters that are normally special in regular expressions
1308 lose their special meanings between brackets.
1309 However, you can use bracket expressions to match special pattern characters
1310 without quoting them, so they are sometimes useful for this purpose.
1312 Though it might seem like a strange way to write it, the following pattern
1313 will match a @samp{.} in the string:
1319 The shell performs any word expansions before passing the pattern
1320 to the regular expression functions,
1321 so you can assume that the shell's quoting takes precedence.
1322 As noted above, the regular expression parser will interpret any
1323 unquoted backslashes remaining in the pattern after shell expansion
1324 according to its own rules.
1325 The intention is to avoid making shell programmers quote things twice
1326 as much as possible, so shell quoting should be sufficient to quote
1327 special pattern characters where that's necessary.
1329 The array variable @code{BASH_REMATCH} records which parts of the string
1330 matched the pattern.
1331 The element of @code{BASH_REMATCH} with index 0 contains the portion of
1332 the string matching the entire regular expression.
1333 Substrings matched by parenthesized subexpressions within the regular
1334 expression are saved in the remaining @code{BASH_REMATCH} indices.
1335 The element of @code{BASH_REMATCH} with index @var{n} is the portion of the
1336 string matching the @var{n}th parenthesized subexpression.
1340 in the global scope; declaring it as a local variable will lead to
1343 Expressions may be combined using the following operators, listed
1344 in decreasing order of precedence:
1347 @item ( @var{expression} )
1348 Returns the value of @var{expression}.
1349 This may be used to override the normal precedence of operators.
1351 @item ! @var{expression}
1352 True if @var{expression} is false.
1354 @item @var{expression1} && @var{expression2}
1355 True if both @var{expression1} and @var{expression2} are true.
1357 @item @var{expression1} || @var{expression2}
1358 True if either @var{expression1} or @var{expression2} is true.
1362 The @code{&&} and @code{||} operators do not evaluate @var{expression2} if the
1363 value of @var{expression1} is sufficient to determine the return
1364 value of the entire conditional expression.
1367 @node Command Grouping
1368 @subsubsection Grouping Commands
1369 @cindex commands, grouping
1371 Bash provides two ways to group a list of commands to be executed
1372 as a unit. When commands are grouped, redirections may be applied
1373 to the entire command list. For example, the output of all the
1374 commands in the list may be redirected to a single stream.
1382 Placing a list of commands between parentheses forces the shell to create
1383 a subshell (@pxref{Command Execution Environment}), and each
1384 of the commands in @var{list} is executed in that subshell environment.
1385 Since the @var{list} is executed in a subshell, variable assignments do not
1386 remain in effect after the subshell completes.
1395 Placing a list of commands between curly braces causes the list to
1396 be executed in the current shell context. No subshell is created.
1397 The semicolon (or newline) following @var{list} is required.
1400 In addition to the creation of a subshell, there is a subtle difference
1401 between these two constructs due to historical reasons. The braces
1402 are reserved words, so they must be separated from the @var{list}
1403 by @code{blank}s or other shell metacharacters.
1404 The parentheses are operators, and are
1405 recognized as separate tokens by the shell even if they are not separated
1406 from the @var{list} by whitespace.
1408 The exit status of both of these constructs is the exit status of
1412 @subsection Coprocesses
1415 A @code{coprocess} is a shell command preceded by the @code{coproc}
1417 A coprocess is executed asynchronously in a subshell, as if the command
1418 had been terminated with the @samp{&} control operator, with a two-way pipe
1419 established between the executing shell and the coprocess.
1421 The syntax for a coprocess is:
1424 coproc [@var{NAME}] @var{command} [@var{redirections}]
1428 This creates a coprocess named @var{NAME}.
1429 @var{command} may be either a simple command (@pxref{Simple Commands})
1430 or a compound command (@pxref{Compound Commands}).
1431 @var{NAME} is a shell variable name.
1432 If @var{NAME} is not supplied, the default name is @code{COPROC}.
1434 The recommended form to use for a coprocess is
1437 coproc @var{NAME} @{ @var{command}; @}
1441 This form is recommended because simple commands result in the coprocess
1442 always being named @code{COPROC}, and it is simpler to use and more complete
1443 than the other compound commands.
1445 There are other forms of coprocesses:
1448 coproc @var{NAME} @var{compound-command}
1449 coproc @var{compound-command}
1450 coproc @var{simple-command}
1454 If @var{command} is a compound command, @var{NAME} is optional. The
1455 word following @code{coproc} determines whether that word is interpreted
1456 as a variable name: it is interpreted as @var{NAME} if it is not a
1457 reserved word that introduces a compound command.
1458 If @var{command} is a simple command, @var{NAME} is not allowed; this
1459 is to avoid confusion between @var{NAME} and the first word of the simple
1462 When the coprocess is executed, the shell creates an array variable
1464 named @var{NAME} in the context of the executing shell.
1465 The standard output of @var{command}
1466 is connected via a pipe to a file descriptor in the executing shell,
1467 and that file descriptor is assigned to @var{NAME}[0].
1468 The standard input of @var{command}
1469 is connected via a pipe to a file descriptor in the executing shell,
1470 and that file descriptor is assigned to @var{NAME}[1].
1471 This pipe is established before any redirections specified by the
1472 command (@pxref{Redirections}).
1473 The file descriptors can be utilized as arguments to shell commands
1474 and redirections using standard word expansions.
1475 Other than those created to execute command and process substitutions,
1476 the file descriptors are not available in subshells.
1478 The process ID of the shell spawned to execute the coprocess is
1479 available as the value of the variable @env{@var{NAME}_PID}.
1481 builtin command may be used to wait for the coprocess to terminate.
1483 Since the coprocess is created as an asynchronous command,
1484 the @code{coproc} command always returns success.
1485 The return status of a coprocess is the exit status of @var{command}.
1488 @subsection GNU Parallel
1490 There are ways to run commands in parallel that are not built into Bash.
1491 GNU Parallel is a tool to do just that.
1493 GNU Parallel, as its name suggests, can be used to build and run commands
1494 in parallel. You may run the same command with different arguments, whether
1495 they are filenames, usernames, hostnames, or lines read from files. GNU
1496 Parallel provides shorthand references to many of the most common operations
1497 (input lines, various portions of the input line, different ways to specify
1498 the input source, and so on). Parallel can replace @code{xargs} or feed
1499 commands from its input sources to several different instances of Bash.
1501 For a complete description, refer to the GNU Parallel documentation, which
1503 @url{https://www.gnu.org/software/parallel/parallel_tutorial.html}.
1505 @node Shell Functions
1506 @section Shell Functions
1507 @cindex shell function
1508 @cindex functions, shell
1510 Shell functions are a way to group commands for later execution
1511 using a single name for the group. They are executed just like
1512 a "regular" command.
1513 When the name of a shell function is used as a simple command name,
1514 the list of commands associated with that function name is executed.
1515 Shell functions are executed in the current
1516 shell context; no new process is created to interpret them.
1518 Functions are declared using this syntax:
1521 @var{fname} () @var{compound-command} [ @var{redirections} ]
1527 function @var{fname} [()] @var{compound-command} [ @var{redirections} ]
1530 This defines a shell function named @var{fname}. The reserved
1531 word @code{function} is optional.
1532 If the @code{function} reserved
1533 word is supplied, the parentheses are optional.
1534 The @dfn{body} of the function is the compound command
1535 @var{compound-command} (@pxref{Compound Commands}).
1536 That command is usually a @var{list} enclosed between @{ and @}, but
1537 may be any compound command listed above.
1538 If the @code{function} reserved word is used, but the
1539 parentheses are not supplied, the braces are recommended.
1540 @var{compound-command} is executed whenever @var{fname} is specified as the
1541 name of a simple command.
1542 When the shell is in @sc{posix} mode (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}),
1543 @var{fname} must be a valid shell name and
1544 may not be the same as one of the special builtins
1545 (@pxref{Special Builtins}).
1546 In default mode, a function name can be any unquoted shell word that does
1547 not contain @samp{$}.
1548 Any redirections (@pxref{Redirections}) associated with the shell function
1549 are performed when the function is executed.
1550 A function definition may be deleted using the @option{-f} option to the
1551 @code{unset} builtin (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
1553 The exit status of a function definition is zero unless a syntax error
1554 occurs or a readonly function with the same name already exists.
1555 When executed, the exit status of a function is the exit status of the
1556 last command executed in the body.
1558 Note that for historical reasons, in the most common usage the curly braces
1559 that surround the body of the function must be separated from the body by
1560 @code{blank}s or newlines.
1561 This is because the braces are reserved words and are only recognized
1562 as such when they are separated from the command list
1563 by whitespace or another shell metacharacter.
1564 Also, when using the braces, the @var{list} must be terminated by a semicolon,
1565 a @samp{&}, or a newline.
1567 When a function is executed, the arguments to the
1568 function become the positional parameters
1569 during its execution (@pxref{Positional Parameters}).
1570 The special parameter @samp{#} that expands to the number of
1571 positional parameters is updated to reflect the change.
1572 Special parameter @code{0} is unchanged.
1573 The first element of the @env{FUNCNAME} variable is set to the
1574 name of the function while the function is executing.
1576 All other aspects of the shell execution
1577 environment are identical between a function and its caller
1578 with these exceptions:
1579 the @env{DEBUG} and @env{RETURN} traps
1580 are not inherited unless the function has been given the
1581 @code{trace} attribute using the @code{declare} builtin or
1582 the @code{-o functrace} option has been enabled with
1583 the @code{set} builtin,
1584 (in which case all functions inherit the @env{DEBUG} and @env{RETURN} traps),
1585 and the @env{ERR} trap is not inherited unless the @code{-o errtrace}
1586 shell option has been enabled.
1587 @xref{Bourne Shell Builtins}, for the description of the
1588 @code{trap} builtin.
1590 The @env{FUNCNEST} variable, if set to a numeric value greater
1591 than 0, defines a maximum function nesting level. Function
1592 invocations that exceed the limit cause the entire command to
1595 If the builtin command @code{return}
1596 is executed in a function, the function completes and
1597 execution resumes with the next command after the function
1599 Any command associated with the @code{RETURN} trap is executed
1600 before execution resumes.
1601 When a function completes, the values of the
1602 positional parameters and the special parameter @samp{#}
1603 are restored to the values they had prior to the function's
1604 execution. If a numeric argument is given to @code{return},
1605 that is the function's return status; otherwise the function's
1606 return status is the exit status of the last command executed
1607 before the @code{return}.
1609 Variables local to the function may be declared with the
1610 @code{local} builtin (@dfn{local variables}).
1611 Ordinarily, variables and their values
1612 are shared between a function and its caller.
1613 These variables are visible only to
1614 the function and the commands it invokes. This is particularly
1615 important when a shell function calls other functions.
1617 In the following description, the @dfn{current scope} is a currently-
1619 Previous scopes consist of that function's caller and so on,
1620 back to the "global" scope, where the shell is not executing
1622 Consequently, a local variable at the current local scope is a variable
1623 declared using the @code{local} or @code{declare} builtins in the
1624 function that is currently executing.
1626 Local variables "shadow" variables with the same name declared at
1627 previous scopes. For instance, a local variable declared in a function
1628 hides a global variable of the same name: references and assignments
1629 refer to the local variable, leaving the global variable unmodified.
1630 When the function returns, the global variable is once again visible.
1632 The shell uses @dfn{dynamic scoping} to control a variable's visibility
1634 With dynamic scoping, visible variables and their values
1635 are a result of the sequence of function calls that caused execution
1636 to reach the current function.
1637 The value of a variable that a function sees depends
1638 on its value within its caller, if any, whether that caller is
1639 the "global" scope or another shell function.
1640 This is also the value that a local variable
1641 declaration "shadows", and the value that is restored when the function
1644 For example, if a variable @env{var} is declared as local in function
1645 @code{func1}, and @code{func1} calls another function @code{func2},
1646 references to @env{var} made from within @code{func2} will resolve to the
1647 local variable @env{var} from @code{func1}, shadowing any global variable
1650 The following script demonstrates this behavior.
1651 When executed, the script displays
1654 In func2, var = func1 local
1660 local var='func1 local'
1666 echo "In func2, var = $var"
1673 The @code{unset} builtin also acts using the same dynamic scope: if a
1674 variable is local to the current scope, @code{unset} will unset it;
1675 otherwise the unset will refer to the variable found in any calling scope
1677 If a variable at the current local scope is unset, it will remain so
1678 (appearing as unset)
1679 until it is reset in that scope or until the function returns.
1680 Once the function returns, any instance of the variable at a previous
1681 scope will become visible.
1682 If the unset acts on a variable at a previous scope, any instance of a
1683 variable with that name that had been shadowed will become visible
1684 (see below how @code{localvar_unset}shell option changes this behavior).
1686 Function names and definitions may be listed with the
1687 @option{-f} option to the @code{declare} (@code{typeset})
1688 builtin command (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
1689 The @option{-F} option to @code{declare} or @code{typeset}
1690 will list the function names only
1691 (and optionally the source file and line number, if the @code{extdebug}
1692 shell option is enabled).
1693 Functions may be exported so that child shell processes
1694 (those created when executing a separate shell invocation)
1695 automatically have them defined with the
1696 @option{-f} option to the @code{export} builtin
1697 (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
1699 Functions may be recursive.
1700 The @code{FUNCNEST} variable may be used to limit the depth of the
1701 function call stack and restrict the number of function invocations.
1702 By default, no limit is placed on the number of recursive calls.
1704 @node Shell Parameters
1705 @section Shell Parameters
1707 @cindex variable, shell
1708 @cindex shell variable
1711 * Positional Parameters:: The shell's command-line arguments.
1712 * Special Parameters:: Parameters denoted by special characters.
1715 A @dfn{parameter} is an entity that stores values.
1716 It can be a @code{name}, a number, or one of the special characters
1718 A @dfn{variable} is a parameter denoted by a @code{name}.
1719 A variable has a @code{value} and zero or more @code{attributes}.
1720 Attributes are assigned using the @code{declare} builtin command
1721 (see the description of the @code{declare} builtin in @ref{Bash Builtins}).
1723 A parameter is set if it has been assigned a value. The null string is
1724 a valid value. Once a variable is set, it may be unset only by using
1725 the @code{unset} builtin command.
1727 A variable may be assigned to by a statement of the form
1729 @var{name}=[@var{value}]
1733 is not given, the variable is assigned the null string. All
1734 @var{value}s undergo tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion,
1735 command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote
1736 removal (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
1737 If the variable has its @code{integer}
1738 attribute set, then @var{value}
1739 is evaluated as an arithmetic expression even if the @code{$((@dots{}))}
1740 expansion is not used (@pxref{Arithmetic Expansion}).
1741 Word splitting and filename expansion are not performed.
1742 Assignment statements may also appear as arguments to the
1744 @code{declare}, @code{typeset}, @code{export}, @code{readonly},
1745 and @code{local} builtin commands (@dfn{declaration} commands).
1746 When in @sc{posix} mode (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}), these builtins may appear
1747 in a command after one or more instances of the @code{command} builtin
1748 and retain these assignment statement properties.
1750 In the context where an assignment statement is assigning a value
1751 to a shell variable or array index (@pxref{Arrays}), the @samp{+=}
1752 operator can be used to
1753 append to or add to the variable's previous value.
1754 This includes arguments to builtin commands such as @code{declare} that
1755 accept assignment statements (declaration commands).
1756 When @samp{+=} is applied to a variable for which the @code{integer} attribute
1757 has been set, @var{value} is evaluated as an arithmetic expression and
1758 added to the variable's current value, which is also evaluated.
1759 When @samp{+=} is applied to an array variable using compound assignment
1760 (@pxref{Arrays}), the
1761 variable's value is not unset (as it is when using @samp{=}), and new
1762 values are appended to the array beginning at one greater than the array's
1763 maximum index (for indexed arrays), or added as additional key-value pairs
1764 in an associative array.
1765 When applied to a string-valued variable, @var{value} is expanded and
1766 appended to the variable's value.
1768 A variable can be assigned the @code{nameref} attribute using the
1769 @option{-n} option to the @code{declare} or @code{local} builtin commands
1770 (@pxref{Bash Builtins})
1771 to create a @dfn{nameref}, or a reference to another variable.
1772 This allows variables to be manipulated indirectly.
1773 Whenever the nameref variable is referenced, assigned to, unset, or has
1774 its attributes modified (other than using or changing the nameref
1775 attribute itself), the
1776 operation is actually performed on the variable specified by the nameref
1778 A nameref is commonly used within shell functions to refer to a variable
1779 whose name is passed as an argument to the function.
1780 For instance, if a variable name is passed to a shell function as its first
1786 inside the function creates a nameref variable @env{ref} whose value is
1787 the variable name passed as the first argument.
1788 References and assignments to @env{ref}, and changes to its attributes,
1789 are treated as references, assignments, and attribute modifications
1790 to the variable whose name was passed as @code{$1}.
1792 If the control variable in a @code{for} loop has the nameref attribute,
1793 the list of words can be a list of shell variables, and a name reference
1794 will be established for each word in the list, in turn, when the loop is
1796 Array variables cannot be given the nameref attribute.
1797 However, nameref variables can reference array variables and subscripted
1799 Namerefs can be unset using the @option{-n} option to the @code{unset} builtin
1800 (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
1801 Otherwise, if @code{unset} is executed with the name of a nameref variable
1802 as an argument, the variable referenced by the nameref variable will be unset.
1804 @node Positional Parameters
1805 @subsection Positional Parameters
1806 @cindex parameters, positional
1808 A @dfn{positional parameter} is a parameter denoted by one or more
1809 digits, other than the single digit @code{0}. Positional parameters are
1810 assigned from the shell's arguments when it is invoked,
1811 and may be reassigned using the @code{set} builtin command.
1812 Positional parameter @code{N} may be referenced as @code{$@{N@}}, or
1813 as @code{$N} when @code{N} consists of a single digit.
1814 Positional parameters may not be assigned to with assignment statements.
1815 The @code{set} and @code{shift} builtins are used to set and
1816 unset them (@pxref{Shell Builtin Commands}).
1817 The positional parameters are
1818 temporarily replaced when a shell function is executed
1819 (@pxref{Shell Functions}).
1821 When a positional parameter consisting of more than a single
1822 digit is expanded, it must be enclosed in braces.
1824 @node Special Parameters
1825 @subsection Special Parameters
1826 @cindex parameters, special
1828 The shell treats several parameters specially. These parameters may
1829 only be referenced; assignment to them is not allowed.
1835 ($*) Expands to the positional parameters, starting from one.
1836 When the expansion is not within double quotes, each positional parameter
1837 expands to a separate word.
1838 In contexts where it is performed, those words
1839 are subject to further word splitting and filename expansion.
1840 When the expansion occurs within double quotes, it expands to a single word
1841 with the value of each parameter separated by the first character of the
1842 @env{IFS} special variable. That is, @code{"$*"} is equivalent
1843 to @code{"$1@var{c}$2@var{c}@dots{}"}, where @var{c}
1844 is the first character of the value of the @code{IFS}
1846 If @env{IFS} is unset, the parameters are separated by spaces.
1847 If @env{IFS} is null, the parameters are joined without intervening
1852 ($@@) Expands to the positional parameters, starting from one.
1853 In contexts where word splitting is performed, this expands each
1854 positional parameter to a separate word; if not within double
1855 quotes, these words are subject to word splitting.
1856 In contexts where word splitting is not performed,
1857 this expands to a single word
1858 with each positional parameter separated by a space.
1860 expansion occurs within double quotes, and word splitting is performed,
1861 each parameter expands to a
1862 separate word. That is, @code{"$@@"} is equivalent to
1863 @code{"$1" "$2" @dots{}}.
1864 If the double-quoted expansion occurs within a word, the expansion of
1865 the first parameter is joined with the beginning part of the original
1866 word, and the expansion of the last parameter is joined with the last
1867 part of the original word.
1868 When there are no positional parameters, @code{"$@@"} and
1870 expand to nothing (i.e., they are removed).
1874 ($#) Expands to the number of positional parameters in decimal.
1878 ($?) Expands to the exit status of the most recently executed foreground
1883 ($-, a hyphen.) Expands to the current option flags as specified upon
1884 invocation, by the @code{set}
1885 builtin command, or those set by the shell itself
1886 (such as the @option{-i} option).
1890 ($$) Expands to the process @sc{id} of the shell. In a subshell, it
1891 expands to the process @sc{id} of the invoking shell, not the subshell.
1895 ($!) Expands to the process @sc{id} of the job most recently placed into the
1896 background, whether executed as an asynchronous command or using
1897 the @code{bg} builtin (@pxref{Job Control Builtins}).
1901 ($0) Expands to the name of the shell or shell script. This is set at
1902 shell initialization. If Bash is invoked with a file of commands
1903 (@pxref{Shell Scripts}), @code{$0} is set to the name of that file.
1904 If Bash is started with the @option{-c} option (@pxref{Invoking Bash}),
1905 then @code{$0} is set to the first argument after the string to be
1906 executed, if one is present. Otherwise, it is set
1907 to the filename used to invoke Bash, as given by argument zero.
1910 @node Shell Expansions
1911 @section Shell Expansions
1914 Expansion is performed on the command line after it has been split into
1915 @code{token}s. There are seven kinds of expansion performed:
1918 @item brace expansion
1919 @item tilde expansion
1920 @item parameter and variable expansion
1921 @item command substitution
1922 @item arithmetic expansion
1923 @item word splitting
1924 @item filename expansion
1928 * Brace Expansion:: Expansion of expressions within braces.
1929 * Tilde Expansion:: Expansion of the ~ character.
1930 * Shell Parameter Expansion:: How Bash expands variables to their values.
1931 * Command Substitution:: Using the output of a command as an argument.
1932 * Arithmetic Expansion:: How to use arithmetic in shell expansions.
1933 * Process Substitution:: A way to write and read to and from a
1935 * Word Splitting:: How the results of expansion are split into separate
1937 * Filename Expansion:: A shorthand for specifying filenames matching patterns.
1938 * Quote Removal:: How and when quote characters are removed from
1942 The order of expansions is:
1944 tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, arithmetic expansion,
1945 and command substitution (done in a left-to-right fashion);
1947 and filename expansion.
1949 On systems that can support it, there is an additional expansion
1950 available: @dfn{process substitution}.
1951 This is performed at the
1952 same time as tilde, parameter, variable, and arithmetic expansion and
1953 command substitution.
1955 After these expansions are performed, quote characters present in the
1956 original word are removed unless they have been quoted themselves
1957 (@dfn{quote removal}).
1959 Only brace expansion, word splitting, and filename expansion
1960 can increase the number of words of the expansion; other expansions
1961 expand a single word to a single word.
1962 The only exceptions to this are the expansions of
1963 @code{"$@@"} and @code{$*} (@pxref{Special Parameters}), and
1964 @code{"$@{@var{name}[@@]@}"} and @code{$@{@var{name}[*]@}}
1967 After all expansions, @code{quote removal} (@pxref{Quote Removal})
1970 @node Brace Expansion
1971 @subsection Brace Expansion
1972 @cindex brace expansion
1973 @cindex expansion, brace
1975 Brace expansion is a mechanism by which arbitrary strings may be generated.
1976 This mechanism is similar to
1977 @dfn{filename expansion} (@pxref{Filename Expansion}),
1978 but the filenames generated need not exist.
1979 Patterns to be brace expanded take the form of an optional @var{preamble},
1980 followed by either a series of comma-separated strings or a sequence expression
1981 between a pair of braces,
1982 followed by an optional @var{postscript}.
1983 The preamble is prefixed to each string contained within the braces, and
1984 the postscript is then appended to each resulting string, expanding left
1987 Brace expansions may be nested.
1988 The results of each expanded string are not sorted; left to right order
1992 bash$ echo a@{d,c,b@}e
1996 A sequence expression takes the form @code{@{@var{x}..@var{y}[..@var{incr}]@}},
1997 where @var{x} and @var{y} are either integers or letters,
1998 and @var{incr}, an optional increment, is an integer.
1999 When integers are supplied, the expression expands to each number between
2000 @var{x} and @var{y}, inclusive.
2001 Supplied integers may be prefixed with @samp{0} to force each term to have the
2003 When either @var{x} or @var{y} begins with a zero, the shell
2004 attempts to force all generated terms to contain the same number of digits,
2005 zero-padding where necessary.
2006 When letters are supplied, the expression expands to each character
2007 lexicographically between @var{x} and @var{y}, inclusive,
2008 using the default C locale.
2009 Note that both @var{x} and @var{y} must be of the same type
2010 (integer or letter).
2011 When the increment is supplied, it is used as the difference between
2012 each term. The default increment is 1 or -1 as appropriate.
2014 Brace expansion is performed before any other expansions,
2015 and any characters special to other expansions are preserved
2016 in the result. It is strictly textual. Bash
2017 does not apply any syntactic interpretation to the context of the
2018 expansion or the text between the braces.
2020 A correctly-formed brace expansion must contain unquoted opening
2021 and closing braces, and at least one unquoted comma or a valid
2022 sequence expression.
2023 Any incorrectly formed brace expansion is left unchanged.
2025 A @{ or @samp{,} may be quoted with a backslash to prevent its
2026 being considered part of a brace expression.
2027 To avoid conflicts with parameter expansion, the string @samp{$@{}
2028 is not considered eligible for brace expansion,
2029 and inhibits brace expansion until the closing @samp{@}}.
2031 This construct is typically used as shorthand when the common
2032 prefix of the strings to be generated is longer than in the
2035 mkdir /usr/local/src/bash/@{old,new,dist,bugs@}
2039 chown root /usr/@{ucb/@{ex,edit@},lib/@{ex?.?*,how_ex@}@}
2042 @node Tilde Expansion
2043 @subsection Tilde Expansion
2044 @cindex tilde expansion
2045 @cindex expansion, tilde
2047 If a word begins with an unquoted tilde character (@samp{~}), all of the
2048 characters up to the first unquoted slash (or all characters,
2049 if there is no unquoted slash) are considered a @dfn{tilde-prefix}.
2050 If none of the characters in the tilde-prefix are quoted, the
2051 characters in the tilde-prefix following the tilde are treated as a
2052 possible @dfn{login name}.
2053 If this login name is the null string, the tilde is replaced with the
2054 value of the @env{HOME} shell variable.
2055 If @env{HOME} is unset, the home directory of the user executing the
2056 shell is substituted instead.
2057 Otherwise, the tilde-prefix is replaced with the home directory
2058 associated with the specified login name.
2060 If the tilde-prefix is @samp{~+}, the value of
2061 the shell variable @env{PWD} replaces the tilde-prefix.
2062 If the tilde-prefix is @samp{~-}, the value of the shell variable
2063 @env{OLDPWD}, if it is set, is substituted.
2065 If the characters following the tilde in the tilde-prefix consist of a
2066 number @var{N}, optionally prefixed by a @samp{+} or a @samp{-},
2067 the tilde-prefix is replaced with the
2068 corresponding element from the directory stack, as it would be displayed
2069 by the @code{dirs} builtin invoked with the characters following tilde
2070 in the tilde-prefix as an argument (@pxref{The Directory Stack}).
2071 If the tilde-prefix, sans the tilde, consists of a number without a
2072 leading @samp{+} or @samp{-}, @samp{+} is assumed.
2074 If the login name is invalid, or the tilde expansion fails, the word is
2077 Each variable assignment is checked for unquoted tilde-prefixes immediately
2078 following a @samp{:} or the first @samp{=}.
2079 In these cases, tilde expansion is also performed.
2080 Consequently, one may use filenames with tildes in assignments to
2081 @env{PATH}, @env{MAILPATH}, and @env{CDPATH},
2082 and the shell assigns the expanded value.
2084 The following table shows how Bash treats unquoted tilde-prefixes:
2088 The value of @code{$HOME}
2093 The subdirectory @code{foo} of the home directory of the user
2100 @file{$@{OLDPWD-'~-'@}/foo}
2103 The string that would be displayed by @samp{dirs +@var{N}}
2106 The string that would be displayed by @samp{dirs +@var{N}}
2109 The string that would be displayed by @samp{dirs -@var{N}}
2112 Bash also performs tilde expansion on words satisfying the conditions of
2113 variable assignments (@pxref{Shell Parameters})
2114 when they appear as arguments to simple commands.
2115 Bash does not do this, except for the declaration commands listed
2116 above, when in @sc{posix} mode.
2118 @node Shell Parameter Expansion
2119 @subsection Shell Parameter Expansion
2120 @cindex parameter expansion
2121 @cindex expansion, parameter
2123 The @samp{$} character introduces parameter expansion,
2124 command substitution, or arithmetic expansion. The parameter name
2125 or symbol to be expanded may be enclosed in braces, which
2126 are optional but serve to protect the variable to be expanded from
2127 characters immediately following it which could be
2128 interpreted as part of the name.
2130 When braces are used, the matching ending brace is the first @samp{@}}
2131 not escaped by a backslash or within a quoted string, and not within an
2132 embedded arithmetic expansion, command substitution, or parameter
2135 The basic form of parameter expansion is $@{@var{parameter}@}.
2136 The value of @var{parameter} is substituted.
2137 The @var{parameter} is a shell parameter as described above
2138 (@pxref{Shell Parameters}) or an array reference (@pxref{Arrays}).
2139 The braces are required when @var{parameter}
2140 is a positional parameter with more than one digit,
2141 or when @var{parameter} is followed by a character that is not to be
2142 interpreted as part of its name.
2144 If the first character of @var{parameter} is an exclamation point (!),
2145 and @var{parameter} is not a nameref,
2146 it introduces a level of indirection.
2147 Bash uses the value formed by expanding the rest of
2148 @var{parameter} as the new @var{parameter}; this is then
2149 expanded and that value is used in the rest of the expansion, rather
2150 than the expansion of the original @var{parameter}.
2151 This is known as @code{indirect expansion}.
2152 The value is subject to tilde expansion,
2153 parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion.
2154 If @var{parameter} is a nameref, this expands to the name of the
2155 variable referenced by @var{parameter} instead of performing the
2156 complete indirect expansion.
2157 The exceptions to this are the expansions of $@{!@var{prefix}*@}
2158 and $@{!@var{name}[@@]@}
2160 The exclamation point must immediately follow the left brace in order to
2161 introduce indirection.
2163 In each of the cases below, @var{word} is subject to tilde expansion,
2164 parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion.
2166 When not performing substring expansion, using the forms described
2167 below (e.g., @samp{:-}), Bash tests for a parameter that is unset or null.
2168 Omitting the colon results in a test only for a parameter that is unset.
2169 Put another way, if the colon is included,
2170 the operator tests for both @var{parameter}'s existence and that its value
2171 is not null; if the colon is omitted, the operator tests only for existence.
2175 @item $@{@var{parameter}:@minus{}@var{word}@}
2176 If @var{parameter} is unset or null, the expansion of
2177 @var{word} is substituted. Otherwise, the value of
2178 @var{parameter} is substituted.
2186 @item $@{@var{parameter}:=@var{word}@}
2188 is unset or null, the expansion of @var{word}
2189 is assigned to @var{parameter}.
2190 The value of @var{parameter} is then substituted.
2191 Positional parameters and special parameters may not be assigned to
2196 $ : $@{var:=DEFAULT@}
2201 @item $@{@var{parameter}:?@var{word}@}
2203 is null or unset, the expansion of @var{word} (or a message
2204 to that effect if @var{word}
2205 is not present) is written to the standard error and the shell, if it
2206 is not interactive, exits. Otherwise, the value of @var{parameter} is
2211 $ : $@{var:?var is unset or null@}
2212 bash: var: var is unset or null
2215 @item $@{@var{parameter}:+@var{word}@}
2217 is null or unset, nothing is substituted, otherwise the expansion of
2218 @var{word} is substituted.
2222 $ echo $@{var:+var is set and not null@}
2223 var is set and not null
2226 @item $@{@var{parameter}:@var{offset}@}
2227 @itemx $@{@var{parameter}:@var{offset}:@var{length}@}
2228 This is referred to as Substring Expansion.
2229 It expands to up to @var{length} characters of the value of @var{parameter}
2230 starting at the character specified by @var{offset}.
2231 If @var{parameter} is @samp{@@} or @samp{*}, an indexed array subscripted by
2232 @samp{@@} or @samp{*}, or an associative array name, the results differ as
2234 If @var{length} is omitted, it expands to the substring of the value of
2235 @var{parameter} starting at the character specified by @var{offset}
2236 and extending to the end of the value.
2237 @var{length} and @var{offset} are arithmetic expressions
2238 (@pxref{Shell Arithmetic}).
2240 If @var{offset} evaluates to a number less than zero, the value
2241 is used as an offset in characters
2242 from the end of the value of @var{parameter}.
2243 If @var{length} evaluates to a number less than zero,
2244 it is interpreted as an offset in characters
2245 from the end of the value of @var{parameter} rather than
2246 a number of characters, and the expansion is the characters between
2247 @var{offset} and that result.
2248 Note that a negative offset must be separated from the colon by at least
2249 one space to avoid being confused with the @samp{:-} expansion.
2251 Here are some examples illustrating substring expansion on parameters and
2255 $ string=01234567890abcdefgh
2258 $ echo ${string:7:0}
2260 $ echo ${string:7:2}
2262 $ echo ${string:7:-2}
2264 $ echo ${string: -7}
2266 $ echo ${string: -7:0}
2268 $ echo ${string: -7:2}
2270 $ echo ${string: -7:-2}
2272 $ set -- 01234567890abcdefgh
2289 $ array[0]=01234567890abcdefgh
2290 $ echo ${array[0]:7}
2292 $ echo ${array[0]:7:0}
2294 $ echo ${array[0]:7:2}
2296 $ echo ${array[0]:7:-2}
2298 $ echo ${array[0]: -7}
2300 $ echo ${array[0]: -7:0}
2302 $ echo ${array[0]: -7:2}
2304 $ echo ${array[0]: -7:-2}
2308 If @var{parameter} is @samp{@@} or @samp{*}, the result is @var{length}
2309 positional parameters beginning at @var{offset}.
2310 A negative @var{offset} is taken relative to one greater than the greatest
2311 positional parameter, so an offset of -1 evaluates to the last positional
2313 It is an expansion error if @var{length} evaluates to a number less than zero.
2315 The following examples illustrate substring expansion using positional
2319 $ set -- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h
2321 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h
2327 bash: -2: substring expression < 0
2331 ./bash 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h
2338 If @var{parameter} is an indexed array name subscripted
2339 by @samp{@@} or @samp{*}, the result is the @var{length}
2340 members of the array beginning with @code{$@{@var{parameter}[@var{offset}]@}}.
2341 A negative @var{offset} is taken relative to one greater than the maximum
2342 index of the specified array.
2343 It is an expansion error if @var{length} evaluates to a number less than zero.
2345 These examples show how you can use substring expansion with indexed
2349 $ array=(0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h)
2350 $ echo ${array[@]:7}
2351 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h
2352 $ echo ${array[@]:7:2}
2354 $ echo ${array[@]: -7:2}
2356 $ echo ${array[@]: -7:-2}
2357 bash: -2: substring expression < 0
2358 $ echo ${array[@]:0}
2359 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h
2360 $ echo ${array[@]:0:2}
2362 $ echo ${array[@]: -7:0}
2366 Substring expansion applied to an associative array produces undefined
2369 Substring indexing is zero-based unless the positional parameters
2370 are used, in which case the indexing starts at 1 by default.
2371 If @var{offset} is 0, and the positional parameters are used, @code{$0} is
2372 prefixed to the list.
2374 @item $@{!@var{prefix}*@}
2375 @itemx $@{!@var{prefix}@@@}
2376 Expands to the names of variables whose names begin with @var{prefix},
2377 separated by the first character of the @env{IFS} special variable.
2378 When @samp{@@} is used and the expansion appears within double quotes, each
2379 variable name expands to a separate word.
2381 @item $@{!@var{name}[@@]@}
2382 @itemx $@{!@var{name}[*]@}
2383 If @var{name} is an array variable, expands to the list of array indices
2384 (keys) assigned in @var{name}.
2385 If @var{name} is not an array, expands to 0 if @var{name} is set and null
2387 When @samp{@@} is used and the expansion appears within double quotes, each
2388 key expands to a separate word.
2390 @item $@{#@var{parameter}@}
2391 The length in characters of the expanded value of @var{parameter} is
2393 If @var{parameter} is @samp{*} or @samp{@@}, the value substituted
2394 is the number of positional parameters.
2395 If @var{parameter} is an array name subscripted by @samp{*} or @samp{@@},
2396 the value substituted is the number of elements in the array.
2398 is an indexed array name subscripted by a negative number, that number is
2399 interpreted as relative to one greater than the maximum index of
2400 @var{parameter}, so negative indices count back from the end of the
2401 array, and an index of -1 references the last element.
2403 @item $@{@var{parameter}#@var{word}@}
2404 @itemx $@{@var{parameter}##@var{word}@}
2406 is expanded to produce a pattern and matched according to the rules
2407 described below (@pxref{Pattern Matching}). If the pattern matches
2408 the beginning of the expanded value of @var{parameter},
2409 then the result of the expansion is the expanded value of @var{parameter}
2410 with the shortest matching pattern (the @samp{#} case) or the
2411 longest matching pattern (the @samp{##} case) deleted.
2412 If @var{parameter} is @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2413 the pattern removal operation is applied to each positional
2414 parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2415 If @var{parameter} is an array variable subscripted with
2416 @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2417 the pattern removal operation is applied to each member of the
2418 array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2420 @item $@{@var{parameter}%@var{word}@}
2421 @itemx $@{@var{parameter}%%@var{word}@}
2423 is expanded to produce a pattern and matched according to the rules
2424 described below (@pxref{Pattern Matching}).
2425 If the pattern matches a trailing portion of the expanded value of
2426 @var{parameter}, then the result of the expansion is the value of
2427 @var{parameter} with the shortest matching pattern (the @samp{%} case)
2428 or the longest matching pattern (the @samp{%%} case) deleted.
2429 If @var{parameter} is @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2430 the pattern removal operation is applied to each positional
2431 parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2433 is an array variable subscripted with @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2434 the pattern removal operation is applied to each member of the
2435 array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2437 @item $@{@var{parameter}/@var{pattern}/@var{string}@}
2438 @itemx $@{@var{parameter}//@var{pattern}/@var{string}@}
2439 @itemx $@{@var{parameter}/#@var{pattern}/@var{string}@}
2440 @itemx $@{@var{parameter}/%@var{pattern}/@var{string}@}
2441 The @var{pattern} is expanded to produce a pattern just as in
2443 @var{Parameter} is expanded and the longest match of @var{pattern}
2444 against its value is replaced with @var{string}.
2445 @var{string} undergoes tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion,
2446 arithmetic expansion, command and process substitution, and quote removal.
2447 The match is performed according to the rules described below
2448 (@pxref{Pattern Matching}).
2450 In the first form above, only the first match is replaced.
2451 If there are two slashes separating @var{parameter} and @var{pattern}
2452 (the second form above), all matches of @var{pattern} are
2453 replaced with @var{string}.
2454 If @var{pattern} is preceded by @samp{#} (the third form above),
2455 it must match at the beginning of the expanded value of @var{parameter}.
2456 If @var{pattern} is preceded by @samp{%} (the fourth form above),
2457 it must match at the end of the expanded value of @var{parameter}.
2458 If the expansion of @var{string} is null,
2459 matches of @var{pattern} are deleted.
2460 If @var{string} is null,
2461 matches of @var{pattern} are deleted
2462 and the @samp{/} following @var{pattern} may be omitted.
2464 If the @code{patsub_replacement} shell option is enabled using @code{shopt},
2465 any unquoted instances of @samp{&} in @var{string} are replaced with the
2466 matching portion of @var{pattern}.
2467 This is intended to duplicate a common @code{sed} idiom.
2469 Quoting any part of @var{string} inhibits replacement in the
2470 expansion of the quoted portion, including replacement strings stored
2472 Backslash will escape @samp{&} in @var{string}; the backslash is removed
2473 in order to permit a literal @samp{&} in the replacement string.
2474 Users should take care if @var{string} is double-quoted to avoid
2475 unwanted interactions between the backslash and double-quoting, since
2476 backslash has special meaning within double quotes.
2477 Pattern substitution performs the check for unquoted @samp{&} after
2478 expanding @var{string},
2479 so users should ensure to properly quote any occurrences of @samp{&}
2480 they want to be taken literally in the replacement
2481 and ensure any instances of @samp{&} they want to be replaced are unquoted.
2488 echo $@{var/abc/& @}
2489 echo "$@{var/abc/& @}"
2490 echo $@{var/abc/$rep@}
2491 echo "$@{var/abc/$rep@}"
2495 will display four lines of "abc def", while
2500 echo $@{var/abc/\& @}
2501 echo "$@{var/abc/\& @}"
2502 echo $@{var/abc/"& "@}
2503 echo $@{var/abc/"$rep"@}
2507 will display four lines of "& def".
2508 Like the pattern removal operators, double quotes surrounding the
2509 replacement string quote the expanded characters, while double quotes
2510 enclosing the entire parameter substitution do not, since
2511 the expansion is performed in a
2512 context that doesn't take any enclosing double quotes into account.
2514 Since backslash can escape @samp{&}, it can also escape a backslash in
2515 the replacement string.
2516 This means that @samp{\\} will insert a literal
2517 backslash into the replacement, so these two @code{echo} commands
2522 echo $@{var/abc/\\&xyz@}
2523 echo $@{var/abc/$rep@}
2527 will both output @samp{\abcxyzdef}.
2529 It should rarely be necessary to enclose only @var{string} in double
2532 If the @code{nocasematch} shell option
2533 (see the description of @code{shopt} in @ref{The Shopt Builtin})
2534 is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case
2535 of alphabetic characters.
2536 If @var{parameter} is @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2537 the substitution operation is applied to each positional
2538 parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2540 is an array variable subscripted with @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2541 the substitution operation is applied to each member of the
2542 array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2544 @item $@{@var{parameter}^@var{pattern}@}
2545 @itemx $@{@var{parameter}^^@var{pattern}@}
2546 @itemx $@{@var{parameter},@var{pattern}@}
2547 @itemx $@{@var{parameter},,@var{pattern}@}
2548 This expansion modifies the case of alphabetic characters in @var{parameter}.
2549 The @var{pattern} is expanded to produce a pattern just as in
2551 Each character in the expanded value of @var{parameter} is tested against
2552 @var{pattern}, and, if it matches the pattern, its case is converted.
2553 The pattern should not attempt to match more than one character.
2555 The @samp{^} operator converts lowercase letters matching @var{pattern}
2556 to uppercase; the @samp{,} operator converts matching uppercase letters
2558 The @samp{^^} and @samp{,,} expansions convert each matched character in the
2559 expanded value; the @samp{^} and @samp{,} expansions match and convert only
2560 the first character in the expanded value.
2561 If @var{pattern} is omitted, it is treated like a @samp{?}, which matches
2564 If @var{parameter} is @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2565 the case modification operation is applied to each positional
2566 parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2568 is an array variable subscripted with @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2569 the case modification operation is applied to each member of the
2570 array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2572 @item $@{@var{parameter}@@@var{operator}@}
2573 The expansion is either a transformation of the value of @var{parameter}
2574 or information about @var{parameter} itself, depending on the value of
2575 @var{operator}. Each @var{operator} is a single letter:
2579 The expansion is a string that is the value of @var{parameter} with lowercase
2580 alphabetic characters converted to uppercase.
2582 The expansion is a string that is the value of @var{parameter} with the first
2583 character converted to uppercase, if it is alphabetic.
2585 The expansion is a string that is the value of @var{parameter} with uppercase
2586 alphabetic characters converted to lowercase.
2588 The expansion is a string that is the value of @var{parameter} quoted in a
2589 format that can be reused as input.
2591 The expansion is a string that is the value of @var{parameter} with backslash
2592 escape sequences expanded as with the @code{$'@dots{}'} quoting mechanism.
2594 The expansion is a string that is the result of expanding the value of
2595 @var{parameter} as if it were a prompt string (@pxref{Controlling the Prompt}).
2597 The expansion is a string in the form of
2598 an assignment statement or @code{declare} command that, if
2599 evaluated, will recreate @var{parameter} with its attributes and value.
2601 Produces a possibly-quoted version of the value of @var{parameter},
2602 except that it prints the values of
2603 indexed and associative arrays as a sequence of quoted key-value pairs
2606 The expansion is a string consisting of flag values representing
2607 @var{parameter}'s attributes.
2609 Like the @samp{K} transformation, but expands the keys and values of
2610 indexed and associative arrays to separate words after word splitting.
2613 If @var{parameter} is @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2614 the operation is applied to each positional
2615 parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2617 is an array variable subscripted with @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
2618 the operation is applied to each member of the
2619 array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
2621 The result of the expansion is subject to word splitting and filename
2622 expansion as described below.
2625 @node Command Substitution
2626 @subsection Command Substitution
2627 @cindex command substitution
2629 Command substitution allows the output of a command to replace
2631 Command substitution occurs when a command is enclosed as follows:
2642 Bash performs the expansion by executing @var{command} in a subshell environment
2643 and replacing the command substitution with the standard output of the
2644 command, with any trailing newlines deleted.
2645 Embedded newlines are not deleted, but they may be removed during
2647 The command substitution @code{$(cat @var{file})} can be
2648 replaced by the equivalent but faster @code{$(< @var{file})}.
2650 When the old-style backquote form of substitution is used,
2651 backslash retains its literal meaning except when followed by
2652 @samp{$}, @samp{`}, or @samp{\}.
2653 The first backquote not preceded by a backslash terminates the
2654 command substitution.
2655 When using the @code{$(@var{command})} form, all characters between
2656 the parentheses make up the command; none are treated specially.
2658 Command substitutions may be nested. To nest when using the backquoted
2659 form, escape the inner backquotes with backslashes.
2661 If the substitution appears within double quotes, word splitting and
2662 filename expansion are not performed on the results.
2664 @node Arithmetic Expansion
2665 @subsection Arithmetic Expansion
2666 @cindex expansion, arithmetic
2667 @cindex arithmetic expansion
2669 Arithmetic expansion allows the evaluation of an arithmetic expression
2670 and the substitution of the result. The format for arithmetic expansion is:
2673 $(( @var{expression} ))
2676 The @var{expression} undergoes the same expansions
2677 as if it were within double quotes,
2678 but double quote characters in @var{expression} are not treated specially
2680 All tokens in the expression undergo parameter and variable expansion,
2681 command substitution, and quote removal.
2682 The result is treated as the arithmetic expression to be evaluated.
2683 Arithmetic expansions may be nested.
2685 The evaluation is performed according to the rules listed below
2686 (@pxref{Shell Arithmetic}).
2687 If the expression is invalid, Bash prints a message indicating
2688 failure to the standard error and no substitution occurs.
2690 @node Process Substitution
2691 @subsection Process Substitution
2692 @cindex process substitution
2694 Process substitution allows a process's input or output to be
2695 referred to using a filename.
2696 It takes the form of
2706 The process @var{list} is run asynchronously, and its input or output
2707 appears as a filename.
2709 passed as an argument to the current command as the result of the
2711 If the @code{>(@var{list})} form is used, writing to
2712 the file will provide input for @var{list}. If the
2713 @code{<(@var{list})} form is used, the file passed as an
2714 argument should be read to obtain the output of @var{list}.
2715 Note that no space may appear between the @code{<} or @code{>}
2716 and the left parenthesis, otherwise the construct would be interpreted
2718 Process substitution is supported on systems that support named
2719 pipes (@sc{fifo}s) or the @file{/dev/fd} method of naming open files.
2721 When available, process substitution is performed simultaneously with
2722 parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic
2725 @node Word Splitting
2726 @subsection Word Splitting
2727 @cindex word splitting
2729 The shell scans the results of parameter expansion, command substitution,
2730 and arithmetic expansion that did not occur within double quotes for
2733 The shell treats each character of @env{$IFS} as a delimiter, and splits
2734 the results of the other expansions into words using these characters
2735 as field terminators.
2736 If @env{IFS} is unset, or its value is exactly @code{<space><tab><newline>},
2737 the default, then sequences of
2738 @code{ <space>}, @code{<tab>}, and @code{<newline>}
2739 at the beginning and end of the results of the previous
2740 expansions are ignored, and any sequence of @env{IFS}
2741 characters not at the beginning or end serves to delimit words.
2742 If @env{IFS} has a value other than the default, then sequences of
2743 the whitespace characters @code{space}, @code{tab}, and @code{newline}
2744 are ignored at the beginning and end of the
2745 word, as long as the whitespace character is in the
2746 value of @env{IFS} (an @env{IFS} whitespace character).
2747 Any character in @env{IFS} that is not @env{IFS}
2748 whitespace, along with any adjacent @env{IFS}
2749 whitespace characters, delimits a field. A sequence of @env{IFS}
2750 whitespace characters is also treated as a delimiter.
2751 If the value of @env{IFS} is null, no word splitting occurs.
2753 Explicit null arguments (@code{""} or @code{''}) are retained
2754 and passed to commands as empty strings.
2755 Unquoted implicit null arguments, resulting from the expansion of
2756 parameters that have no values, are removed.
2757 If a parameter with no value is expanded within double quotes, a
2758 null argument results and is retained
2759 and passed to a command as an empty string.
2760 When a quoted null argument appears as part of a word whose expansion is
2761 non-null, the null argument is removed.
2763 @code{-d''} becomes @code{-d} after word splitting and
2764 null argument removal.
2766 Note that if no expansion occurs, no splitting
2769 @node Filename Expansion
2770 @subsection Filename Expansion
2772 * Pattern Matching:: How the shell matches patterns.
2774 @cindex expansion, filename
2775 @cindex expansion, pathname
2776 @cindex filename expansion
2777 @cindex pathname expansion
2779 After word splitting, unless the @option{-f} option has been set
2780 (@pxref{The Set Builtin}), Bash scans each word for the characters
2781 @samp{*}, @samp{?}, and @samp{[}.
2782 If one of these characters appears, and is not quoted, then the word is
2783 regarded as a @var{pattern},
2784 and replaced with an alphabetically sorted list of
2785 filenames matching the pattern (@pxref{Pattern Matching}).
2786 If no matching filenames are found,
2787 and the shell option @code{nullglob} is disabled, the word is left
2789 If the @code{nullglob} option is set, and no matches are found, the word
2791 If the @code{failglob} shell option is set, and no matches are found,
2792 an error message is printed and the command is not executed.
2793 If the shell option @code{nocaseglob} is enabled, the match is performed
2794 without regard to the case of alphabetic characters.
2796 When a pattern is used for filename expansion, the character @samp{.}
2797 at the start of a filename or immediately following a slash
2798 must be matched explicitly, unless the shell option @code{dotglob} is set.
2799 In order to match the filenames @samp{.} and @samp{..},
2800 the pattern must begin with @samp{.} (for example, @samp{.?}),
2801 even if @code{dotglob} is set.
2802 If the @code{globskipdots} shell option is enabled, the filenames
2803 @samp{.} and @samp{..} are never matched, even if the pattern begins
2805 When not matching filenames, the @samp{.} character is not treated specially.
2807 When matching a filename, the slash character must always be
2808 matched explicitly by a slash in the pattern, but in other matching
2809 contexts it can be matched by a special pattern character as described
2810 below (@pxref{Pattern Matching}).
2812 See the description of @code{shopt} in @ref{The Shopt Builtin},
2813 for a description of the @code{nocaseglob}, @code{nullglob},
2814 @code{globskipdots},
2815 @code{failglob}, and @code{dotglob} options.
2817 The @env{GLOBIGNORE}
2818 shell variable may be used to restrict the set of file names matching a
2819 pattern. If @env{GLOBIGNORE}
2820 is set, each matching file name that also matches one of the patterns in
2821 @env{GLOBIGNORE} is removed from the list of matches.
2822 If the @code{nocaseglob} option is set, the matching against the patterns in
2823 @env{GLOBIGNORE} is performed without regard to case.
2825 @file{.} and @file{..}
2826 are always ignored when @env{GLOBIGNORE}
2827 is set and not null.
2828 However, setting @env{GLOBIGNORE} to a non-null value has the effect of
2829 enabling the @code{dotglob}
2830 shell option, so all other filenames beginning with a
2831 @samp{.} will match.
2832 To get the old behavior of ignoring filenames beginning with a
2833 @samp{.}, make @samp{.*} one of the patterns in @env{GLOBIGNORE}.
2834 The @code{dotglob} option is disabled when @env{GLOBIGNORE}
2837 @node Pattern Matching
2838 @subsubsection Pattern Matching
2839 @cindex pattern matching
2840 @cindex matching, pattern
2842 Any character that appears in a pattern, other than the special pattern
2843 characters described below, matches itself.
2844 The @sc{nul} character may not occur in a pattern.
2845 A backslash escapes the following character; the
2846 escaping backslash is discarded when matching.
2847 The special pattern characters must be quoted if they are to be matched
2850 The special pattern characters have the following meanings:
2853 Matches any string, including the null string.
2854 When the @code{globstar} shell option is enabled, and @samp{*} is used in
2855 a filename expansion context, two adjacent @samp{*}s used as a single
2856 pattern will match all files and zero or more directories and
2858 If followed by a @samp{/}, two adjacent @samp{*}s will match only
2859 directories and subdirectories.
2861 Matches any single character.
2863 Matches any one of the enclosed characters. A pair of characters
2864 separated by a hyphen denotes a @var{range expression};
2865 any character that falls between those two characters, inclusive,
2866 using the current locale's collating sequence and character set,
2867 is matched. If the first character following the
2868 @samp{[} is a @samp{!} or a @samp{^}
2869 then any character not enclosed is matched. A @samp{@minus{}}
2870 may be matched by including it as the first or last character
2871 in the set. A @samp{]} may be matched by including it as the first
2872 character in the set.
2873 The sorting order of characters in range expressions,
2874 and the characters included in the range,
2876 the current locale and the values of the
2877 @env{LC_COLLATE} and @env{LC_ALL} shell variables, if set.
2879 For example, in the default C locale, @samp{[a-dx-z]} is equivalent to
2880 @samp{[abcdxyz]}. Many locales sort characters in dictionary order, and in
2881 these locales @samp{[a-dx-z]} is typically not equivalent to @samp{[abcdxyz]};
2882 it might be equivalent to @samp{[aBbCcDdxYyZz]}, for example. To obtain
2883 the traditional interpretation of ranges in bracket expressions, you can
2884 force the use of the C locale by setting the @env{LC_COLLATE} or
2885 @env{LC_ALL} environment variable to the value @samp{C}, or enable the
2886 @code{globasciiranges} shell option.
2888 Within @samp{[} and @samp{]}, @dfn{character classes} can be specified
2890 @code{[:}@var{class}@code{:]}, where @var{class} is one of the
2891 following classes defined in the @sc{posix} standard:
2893 alnum alpha ascii blank cntrl digit graph lower
2894 print punct space upper word xdigit
2897 A character class matches any character belonging to that class.
2898 The @code{word} character class matches letters, digits, and the character
2901 Within @samp{[} and @samp{]}, an @dfn{equivalence class} can be
2902 specified using the syntax @code{[=}@var{c}@code{=]}, which
2903 matches all characters with the same collation weight (as defined
2904 by the current locale) as the character @var{c}.
2906 Within @samp{[} and @samp{]}, the syntax @code{[.}@var{symbol}@code{.]}
2907 matches the collating symbol @var{symbol}.
2910 If the @code{extglob} shell option is enabled using the @code{shopt}
2911 builtin, the shell recognizes several extended pattern matching operators.
2912 In the following description, a @var{pattern-list} is a list of one
2913 or more patterns separated by a @samp{|}.
2914 When matching filenames, the @code{dotglob} shell option determines
2915 the set of filenames that are tested, as described above.
2916 Composite patterns may be formed using one or more of the following
2920 @item ?(@var{pattern-list})
2921 Matches zero or one occurrence of the given patterns.
2923 @item *(@var{pattern-list})
2924 Matches zero or more occurrences of the given patterns.
2926 @item +(@var{pattern-list})
2927 Matches one or more occurrences of the given patterns.
2929 @item @@(@var{pattern-list})
2930 Matches one of the given patterns.
2932 @item !(@var{pattern-list})
2933 Matches anything except one of the given patterns.
2936 The @code{extglob} option changes the behavior of the parser, since the
2937 parentheses are normally treated as operators with syntactic meaning.
2938 To ensure that extended matching patterns are parsed correctly, make sure
2939 that @code{extglob} is enabled before parsing constructs containing the
2940 patterns, including shell functions and command substitutions.
2942 When matching filenames, the @code{dotglob} shell option determines
2943 the set of filenames that are tested:
2944 when @code{dotglob} is enabled, the set of filenames includes all files
2945 beginning with @samp{.}, but the filenames
2946 @samp{.} and @samp{..} must be matched by a
2947 pattern or sub-pattern that begins with a dot;
2948 when it is disabled, the set does not
2949 include any filenames beginning with ``.'' unless the pattern
2950 or sub-pattern begins with a @samp{.}.
2951 As above, @samp{.} only has a special meaning when matching filenames.
2953 Complicated extended pattern matching against long strings is slow,
2954 especially when the patterns contain alternations and the strings
2955 contain multiple matches.
2956 Using separate matches against shorter strings, or using arrays of
2957 strings instead of a single long string, may be faster.
2960 @subsection Quote Removal
2962 After the preceding expansions, all unquoted occurrences of the
2963 characters @samp{\}, @samp{'}, and @samp{"} that did not
2964 result from one of the above expansions are removed.
2967 @section Redirections
2970 Before a command is executed, its input and output
2971 may be @dfn{redirected}
2972 using a special notation interpreted by the shell.
2973 @dfn{Redirection} allows commands' file handles to be
2974 duplicated, opened, closed,
2975 made to refer to different files,
2976 and can change the files the command reads from and writes to.
2977 Redirection may also be used to modify file handles in the
2978 current shell execution environment. The following redirection
2979 operators may precede or appear anywhere within a
2980 simple command or may follow a command.
2981 Redirections are processed in the order they appear, from
2984 Each redirection that may be preceded by a file descriptor number
2985 may instead be preceded by a word of the form @{@var{varname}@}.
2986 In this case, for each redirection operator except
2987 >&- and <&-, the shell will allocate a file descriptor greater
2988 than 10 and assign it to @{@var{varname}@}. If >&- or <&- is preceded
2989 by @{@var{varname}@}, the value of @var{varname} defines the file
2990 descriptor to close.
2991 If @{@var{varname}@} is supplied, the redirection persists beyond
2992 the scope of the command, allowing the shell programmer to manage
2993 the file descriptor's lifetime manually.
2994 The @code{varredir_close} shell option manages this behavior
2995 (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}).
2997 In the following descriptions, if the file descriptor number is
2998 omitted, and the first character of the redirection operator is
2999 @samp{<}, the redirection refers to the standard input (file
3000 descriptor 0). If the first character of the redirection operator
3001 is @samp{>}, the redirection refers to the standard output (file
3004 The word following the redirection operator in the following
3005 descriptions, unless otherwise noted, is subjected to brace expansion,
3006 tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic
3007 expansion, quote removal, filename expansion, and word splitting.
3008 If it expands to more than one word, Bash reports an error.
3010 Note that the order of redirections is significant. For example,
3013 ls > @var{dirlist} 2>&1
3016 directs both standard output (file descriptor 1) and standard error
3017 (file descriptor 2) to the file @var{dirlist}, while the command
3019 ls 2>&1 > @var{dirlist}
3022 directs only the standard output to file @var{dirlist},
3023 because the standard error was made a copy of the standard output
3024 before the standard output was redirected to @var{dirlist}.
3026 Bash handles several filenames specially when they are used in
3027 redirections, as described in the following table.
3028 If the operating system on which Bash is running provides these
3029 special files, bash will use them; otherwise it will emulate them
3030 internally with the behavior described below.
3033 @item /dev/fd/@var{fd}
3034 If @var{fd} is a valid integer, file descriptor @var{fd} is duplicated.
3037 File descriptor 0 is duplicated.
3040 File descriptor 1 is duplicated.
3043 File descriptor 2 is duplicated.
3045 @item /dev/tcp/@var{host}/@var{port}
3046 If @var{host} is a valid hostname or Internet address, and @var{port}
3047 is an integer port number or service name, Bash attempts to open
3048 the corresponding TCP socket.
3050 @item /dev/udp/@var{host}/@var{port}
3051 If @var{host} is a valid hostname or Internet address, and @var{port}
3052 is an integer port number or service name, Bash attempts to open
3053 the corresponding UDP socket.
3056 A failure to open or create a file causes the redirection to fail.
3058 Redirections using file descriptors greater than 9 should be used with
3059 care, as they may conflict with file descriptors the shell uses
3062 @subsection Redirecting Input
3063 Redirection of input causes the file whose name results from
3064 the expansion of @var{word}
3065 to be opened for reading on file descriptor @code{n},
3066 or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if @code{n}
3069 The general format for redirecting input is:
3071 [@var{n}]<@var{word}
3074 @subsection Redirecting Output
3075 Redirection of output causes the file whose name results from
3076 the expansion of @var{word}
3077 to be opened for writing on file descriptor @var{n},
3078 or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if @var{n}
3079 is not specified. If the file does not exist it is created;
3080 if it does exist it is truncated to zero size.
3082 The general format for redirecting output is:
3084 [@var{n}]>[|]@var{word}
3087 If the redirection operator is @samp{>}, and the @code{noclobber}
3088 option to the @code{set} builtin has been enabled, the redirection
3089 will fail if the file whose name results from the expansion of
3090 @var{word} exists and is a regular file.
3091 If the redirection operator is @samp{>|}, or the redirection operator is
3092 @samp{>} and the @code{noclobber} option is not enabled, the redirection
3093 is attempted even if the file named by @var{word} exists.
3095 @subsection Appending Redirected Output
3096 Redirection of output in this fashion
3097 causes the file whose name results from
3098 the expansion of @var{word}
3099 to be opened for appending on file descriptor @var{n},
3100 or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if @var{n}
3101 is not specified. If the file does not exist it is created.
3103 The general format for appending output is:
3105 [@var{n}]>>@var{word}
3108 @subsection Redirecting Standard Output and Standard Error
3109 This construct allows both the
3110 standard output (file descriptor 1) and
3111 the standard error output (file descriptor 2)
3112 to be redirected to the file whose name is the
3113 expansion of @var{word}.
3115 There are two formats for redirecting standard output and
3126 Of the two forms, the first is preferred.
3127 This is semantically equivalent to
3131 When using the second form, @var{word} may not expand to a number or
3132 @samp{-}. If it does, other redirection operators apply
3133 (see Duplicating File Descriptors below) for compatibility reasons.
3135 @subsection Appending Standard Output and Standard Error
3136 This construct allows both the
3137 standard output (file descriptor 1) and
3138 the standard error output (file descriptor 2)
3139 to be appended to the file whose name is the
3140 expansion of @var{word}.
3142 The format for appending standard output and standard error is:
3147 This is semantically equivalent to
3151 (see Duplicating File Descriptors below).
3153 @subsection Here Documents
3154 This type of redirection instructs the shell to read input from the
3155 current source until a line containing only @var{word}
3156 (with no trailing blanks) is seen. All of
3157 the lines read up to that point are then used as the standard
3158 input (or file descriptor @var{n} if @var{n} is specified) for a command.
3160 The format of here-documents is:
3162 [@var{n}]<<[@minus{}]@var{word}
3167 No parameter and variable expansion, command substitution,
3168 arithmetic expansion, or filename expansion is performed on
3169 @var{word}. If any part of @var{word} is quoted, the
3170 @var{delimiter} is the result of quote removal on @var{word},
3171 and the lines in the here-document are not expanded.
3172 If @var{word} is unquoted,
3173 all lines of the here-document are subjected to
3174 parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion,
3175 the character sequence @code{\newline} is ignored, and @samp{\}
3176 must be used to quote the characters
3177 @samp{\}, @samp{$}, and @samp{`}.
3179 If the redirection operator is @samp{<<-},
3180 then all leading tab characters are stripped from input lines and the
3181 line containing @var{delimiter}.
3182 This allows here-documents within shell scripts to be indented in a
3185 @subsection Here Strings
3186 A variant of here documents, the format is:
3188 [@var{n}]<<< @var{word}
3191 The @var{word} undergoes
3192 tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion,
3193 command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal.
3194 Filename expansion and word splitting are not performed.
3195 The result is supplied as a single string,
3196 with a newline appended,
3197 to the command on its
3198 standard input (or file descriptor @var{n} if @var{n} is specified).
3200 @subsection Duplicating File Descriptors
3201 The redirection operator
3203 [@var{n}]<&@var{word}
3206 is used to duplicate input file descriptors.
3208 expands to one or more digits, the file descriptor denoted by @var{n}
3209 is made to be a copy of that file descriptor.
3210 If the digits in @var{word} do not specify a file descriptor open for
3211 input, a redirection error occurs.
3213 evaluates to @samp{-}, file descriptor @var{n} is closed.
3214 If @var{n} is not specified, the standard input (file descriptor 0) is used.
3218 [@var{n}]>&@var{word}
3221 is used similarly to duplicate output file descriptors. If
3222 @var{n} is not specified, the standard output (file descriptor 1) is used.
3223 If the digits in @var{word} do not specify a file descriptor open for
3224 output, a redirection error occurs.
3226 evaluates to @samp{-}, file descriptor @var{n} is closed.
3227 As a special case, if @var{n} is omitted, and @var{word} does not
3228 expand to one or more digits or @samp{-}, the standard output and standard
3229 error are redirected as described previously.
3231 @subsection Moving File Descriptors
3232 The redirection operator
3234 [@var{n}]<&@var{digit}-
3237 moves the file descriptor @var{digit} to file descriptor @var{n},
3238 or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if @var{n} is not specified.
3239 @var{digit} is closed after being duplicated to @var{n}.
3241 Similarly, the redirection operator
3243 [@var{n}]>&@var{digit}-
3246 moves the file descriptor @var{digit} to file descriptor @var{n},
3247 or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if @var{n} is not specified.
3249 @subsection Opening File Descriptors for Reading and Writing
3250 The redirection operator
3252 [@var{n}]<>@var{word}
3255 causes the file whose name is the expansion of @var{word}
3256 to be opened for both reading and writing on file descriptor
3257 @var{n}, or on file descriptor 0 if @var{n}
3258 is not specified. If the file does not exist, it is created.
3260 @node Executing Commands
3261 @section Executing Commands
3264 * Simple Command Expansion:: How Bash expands simple commands before
3266 * Command Search and Execution:: How Bash finds commands and runs them.
3267 * Command Execution Environment:: The environment in which Bash
3268 executes commands that are not
3270 * Environment:: The environment given to a command.
3271 * Exit Status:: The status returned by commands and how Bash
3273 * Signals:: What happens when Bash or a command it runs
3277 @node Simple Command Expansion
3278 @subsection Simple Command Expansion
3279 @cindex command expansion
3281 When a simple command is executed, the shell performs the following
3282 expansions, assignments, and redirections, from left to right, in
3283 the following order.
3287 The words that the parser has marked as variable assignments (those
3288 preceding the command name) and redirections are saved for later
3292 The words that are not variable assignments or redirections are
3293 expanded (@pxref{Shell Expansions}).
3294 If any words remain after expansion, the first word
3295 is taken to be the name of the command and the remaining words are
3299 Redirections are performed as described above (@pxref{Redirections}).
3302 The text after the @samp{=} in each variable assignment undergoes tilde
3303 expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion,
3304 and quote removal before being assigned to the variable.
3307 If no command name results, the variable assignments affect the current
3309 In the case of such a command (one that consists only of assignment
3310 statements and redirections), assignment statements are performed before
3312 Otherwise, the variables are added to the environment
3313 of the executed command and do not affect the current shell environment.
3314 If any of the assignments attempts to assign a value to a readonly variable,
3315 an error occurs, and the command exits with a non-zero status.
3317 If no command name results, redirections are performed, but do not
3318 affect the current shell environment. A redirection error causes the
3319 command to exit with a non-zero status.
3321 If there is a command name left after expansion, execution proceeds as
3322 described below. Otherwise, the command exits. If one of the expansions
3323 contained a command substitution, the exit status of the command is
3324 the exit status of the last command substitution performed. If there
3325 were no command substitutions, the command exits with a status of zero.
3327 @node Command Search and Execution
3328 @subsection Command Search and Execution
3329 @cindex command execution
3330 @cindex command search
3332 After a command has been split into words, if it results in a
3333 simple command and an optional list of arguments, the following
3338 If the command name contains no slashes, the shell attempts to
3339 locate it. If there exists a shell function by that name, that
3340 function is invoked as described in @ref{Shell Functions}.
3343 If the name does not match a function, the shell searches for
3344 it in the list of shell builtins. If a match is found, that
3348 If the name is neither a shell function nor a builtin,
3349 and contains no slashes, Bash searches each element of
3350 @env{$PATH} for a directory containing an executable file
3351 by that name. Bash uses a hash table to remember the full
3352 pathnames of executable files to avoid multiple @env{PATH} searches
3353 (see the description of @code{hash} in @ref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
3354 A full search of the directories in @env{$PATH}
3355 is performed only if the command is not found in the hash table.
3356 If the search is unsuccessful, the shell searches for a defined shell
3357 function named @code{command_not_found_handle}.
3358 If that function exists, it is invoked in a separate execution environment
3359 with the original command and
3360 the original command's arguments as its arguments, and the function's
3361 exit status becomes the exit status of that subshell.
3362 If that function is not defined, the shell prints an error
3363 message and returns an exit status of 127.
3366 If the search is successful, or if the command name contains
3367 one or more slashes, the shell executes the named program in
3368 a separate execution environment.
3369 Argument 0 is set to the name given, and the remaining arguments
3370 to the command are set to the arguments supplied, if any.
3373 If this execution fails because the file is not in executable
3374 format, and the file is not a directory, it is assumed to be a
3375 @dfn{shell script} and the shell executes it as described in
3376 @ref{Shell Scripts}.
3379 If the command was not begun asynchronously, the shell waits for
3380 the command to complete and collects its exit status.
3384 @node Command Execution Environment
3385 @subsection Command Execution Environment
3386 @cindex execution environment
3388 The shell has an @dfn{execution environment}, which consists of the
3393 open files inherited by the shell at invocation, as modified by
3394 redirections supplied to the @code{exec} builtin
3397 the current working directory as set by @code{cd}, @code{pushd}, or
3398 @code{popd}, or inherited by the shell at invocation
3401 the file creation mode mask as set by @code{umask} or inherited from
3405 current traps set by @code{trap}
3408 shell parameters that are set by variable assignment or with @code{set}
3409 or inherited from the shell's parent in the environment
3412 shell functions defined during execution or inherited from the shell's
3413 parent in the environment
3416 options enabled at invocation (either by default or with command-line
3417 arguments) or by @code{set}
3420 options enabled by @code{shopt} (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin})
3423 shell aliases defined with @code{alias} (@pxref{Aliases})
3426 various process @sc{id}s, including those of background jobs
3427 (@pxref{Lists}), the value of @code{$$}, and the value of
3432 When a simple command other than a builtin or shell function
3433 is to be executed, it
3434 is invoked in a separate execution environment that consists of
3435 the following. Unless otherwise noted, the values are inherited
3440 the shell's open files, plus any modifications and additions specified
3441 by redirections to the command
3444 the current working directory
3447 the file creation mode mask
3450 shell variables and functions marked for export, along with variables
3451 exported for the command, passed in the environment (@pxref{Environment})
3454 traps caught by the shell are reset to the values inherited from the
3455 shell's parent, and traps ignored by the shell are ignored
3459 A command invoked in this separate environment cannot affect the
3460 shell's execution environment.
3462 A @dfn{subshell} is a copy of the shell process.
3464 Command substitution, commands grouped with parentheses,
3465 and asynchronous commands are invoked in a
3466 subshell environment that is a duplicate of the shell environment,
3467 except that traps caught by the shell are reset to the values
3468 that the shell inherited from its parent at invocation. Builtin
3469 commands that are invoked as part of a pipeline are also executed
3470 in a subshell environment. Changes made to the subshell environment
3471 cannot affect the shell's execution environment.
3473 Subshells spawned to execute command substitutions inherit the value of
3474 the @option{-e} option from the parent shell. When not in @sc{posix} mode,
3475 Bash clears the @option{-e} option in such subshells.
3477 If a command is followed by a @samp{&} and job control is not active, the
3478 default standard input for the command is the empty file @file{/dev/null}.
3479 Otherwise, the invoked command inherits the file descriptors of the calling
3480 shell as modified by redirections.
3483 @subsection Environment
3486 When a program is invoked it is given an array of strings
3487 called the @dfn{environment}.
3488 This is a list of name-value pairs, of the form @code{name=value}.
3490 Bash provides several ways to manipulate the environment.
3491 On invocation, the shell scans its own environment and
3492 creates a parameter for each name found, automatically marking
3493 it for @code{export}
3494 to child processes. Executed commands inherit the environment.
3495 The @code{export} and @samp{declare -x}
3496 commands allow parameters and functions to be added to and
3497 deleted from the environment. If the value of a parameter
3498 in the environment is modified, the new value becomes part
3499 of the environment, replacing the old. The environment
3500 inherited by any executed command consists of the shell's
3501 initial environment, whose values may be modified in the shell,
3502 less any pairs removed by the @code{unset} and @samp{export -n}
3503 commands, plus any additions via the @code{export} and
3504 @samp{declare -x} commands.
3506 The environment for any simple command
3507 or function may be augmented temporarily by prefixing it with
3508 parameter assignments, as described in @ref{Shell Parameters}.
3509 These assignment statements affect only the environment seen
3512 If the @option{-k} option is set (@pxref{The Set Builtin}), then all
3513 parameter assignments are placed in the environment for a command,
3514 not just those that precede the command name.
3516 When Bash invokes an external command, the variable @samp{$_}
3517 is set to the full pathname of the command and passed to that
3518 command in its environment.
3521 @subsection Exit Status
3524 The exit status of an executed command is the value returned by the
3525 @code{waitpid} system call or equivalent function. Exit statuses
3526 fall between 0 and 255, though, as explained below, the shell may
3527 use values above 125 specially. Exit statuses from shell builtins and
3528 compound commands are also limited to this range. Under certain
3529 circumstances, the shell will use special values to indicate specific
3532 For the shell's purposes, a command which exits with a
3533 zero exit status has succeeded.
3534 A non-zero exit status indicates failure.
3535 This seemingly counter-intuitive scheme is used so there
3536 is one well-defined way to indicate success and a variety of
3537 ways to indicate various failure modes.
3538 When a command terminates on a fatal signal whose number is @var{N},
3539 Bash uses the value 128+@var{N} as the exit status.
3541 If a command is not found, the child process created to
3542 execute it returns a status of 127. If a command is found
3543 but is not executable, the return status is 126.
3545 If a command fails because of an error during expansion or redirection,
3546 the exit status is greater than zero.
3548 The exit status is used by the Bash conditional commands
3549 (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}) and some of the list
3550 constructs (@pxref{Lists}).
3552 All of the Bash builtins return an exit status of zero if they succeed
3553 and a non-zero status on failure, so they may be used by the
3554 conditional and list constructs.
3555 All builtins return an exit status of 2 to indicate incorrect usage,
3556 generally invalid options or missing arguments.
3558 The exit status of the last command is available in the special
3559 parameter $? (@pxref{Special Parameters}).
3563 @cindex signal handling
3565 When Bash is interactive, in the absence of any traps, it ignores
3566 @code{SIGTERM} (so that @samp{kill 0} does not kill an interactive shell),
3568 is caught and handled (so that the @code{wait} builtin is interruptible).
3569 When Bash receives a @code{SIGINT}, it breaks out of any executing loops.
3570 In all cases, Bash ignores @code{SIGQUIT}.
3571 If job control is in effect (@pxref{Job Control}), Bash
3572 ignores @code{SIGTTIN}, @code{SIGTTOU}, and @code{SIGTSTP}.
3574 Non-builtin commands started by Bash have signal handlers set to the
3575 values inherited by the shell from its parent.
3576 When job control is not in effect, asynchronous commands
3577 ignore @code{SIGINT} and @code{SIGQUIT} in addition to these inherited
3579 Commands run as a result of
3580 command substitution ignore the keyboard-generated job control signals
3581 @code{SIGTTIN}, @code{SIGTTOU}, and @code{SIGTSTP}.
3583 The shell exits by default upon receipt of a @code{SIGHUP}.
3584 Before exiting, an interactive shell resends the @code{SIGHUP} to
3585 all jobs, running or stopped.
3586 Stopped jobs are sent @code{SIGCONT} to ensure that they receive
3588 To prevent the shell from sending the @code{SIGHUP} signal to a
3589 particular job, it should be removed
3590 from the jobs table with the @code{disown}
3591 builtin (@pxref{Job Control Builtins}) or marked
3592 to not receive @code{SIGHUP} using @code{disown -h}.
3594 If the @code{huponexit} shell option has been set with @code{shopt}
3595 (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}), Bash sends a @code{SIGHUP} to all jobs when
3596 an interactive login shell exits.
3598 If Bash is waiting for a command to complete and receives a signal
3599 for which a trap has been set, the trap will not be executed until
3600 the command completes.
3601 When Bash is waiting for an asynchronous
3602 command via the @code{wait} builtin, the reception of a signal for
3603 which a trap has been set will cause the @code{wait} builtin to return
3604 immediately with an exit status greater than 128, immediately after
3605 which the trap is executed.
3607 When job control is not enabled, and Bash is waiting for a foreground
3608 command to complete, the shell receives keyboard-generated signals
3609 such as @code{SIGINT} (usually generated by @samp{^C}) that users
3610 commonly intend to send to that command.
3611 This happens because the shell and the command are in the same process
3612 group as the terminal, and @samp{^C} sends @code{SIGINT} to all processes
3613 in that process group.
3614 See @ref{Job Control}, for a more in-depth discussion of process groups.
3616 When Bash is running without job control enabled and receives @code{SIGINT}
3617 while waiting for a foreground command, it waits until that foreground
3618 command terminates and then decides what to do about the @code{SIGINT}:
3622 If the command terminates due to the @code{SIGINT}, Bash concludes
3623 that the user meant to end the entire script, and acts on the
3624 @code{SIGINT} (e.g., by running a @code{SIGINT} trap or exiting itself);
3627 If the pipeline does not terminate due to @code{SIGINT}, the program
3628 handled the @code{SIGINT} itself and did not treat it as a fatal signal.
3629 In that case, Bash does not treat @code{SIGINT} as a fatal signal,
3630 either, instead assuming that the @code{SIGINT} was used as part of the
3631 program's normal operation (e.g., @command{emacs} uses it to abort editing
3632 commands) or deliberately discarded. However, Bash will run any
3633 trap set on @code{SIGINT}, as it does with any other trapped signal it
3634 receives while it is waiting for the foreground command to
3635 complete, for compatibility.
3639 @section Shell Scripts
3640 @cindex shell script
3642 A shell script is a text file containing shell commands. When such
3643 a file is used as the first non-option argument when invoking Bash,
3644 and neither the @option{-c} nor @option{-s} option is supplied
3645 (@pxref{Invoking Bash}),
3646 Bash reads and executes commands from the file, then exits. This
3647 mode of operation creates a non-interactive shell. The shell first
3648 searches for the file in the current directory, and looks in the
3649 directories in @env{$PATH} if not found there.
3652 a shell script, it sets the special parameter @code{0} to the name
3653 of the file, rather than the name of the shell, and the positional
3654 parameters are set to the remaining arguments, if any are given.
3655 If no additional arguments are supplied, the positional parameters
3658 A shell script may be made executable by using the @code{chmod} command
3659 to turn on the execute bit. When Bash finds such a file while
3660 searching the @env{$PATH} for a command, it creates a
3661 new instance of itself
3663 In other words, executing
3665 filename @var{arguments}
3668 is equivalent to executing
3670 bash filename @var{arguments}
3674 if @code{filename} is an executable shell script.
3675 This subshell reinitializes itself, so that the effect is as if a
3676 new shell had been invoked to interpret the script, with the
3677 exception that the locations of commands remembered by the parent
3678 (see the description of @code{hash} in @ref{Bourne Shell Builtins})
3679 are retained by the child.
3681 Most versions of Unix make this a part of the operating system's command
3682 execution mechanism. If the first line of a script begins with
3683 the two characters @samp{#!}, the remainder of the line specifies
3684 an interpreter for the program and, depending on the operating system, one
3685 or more optional arguments for that interpreter.
3686 Thus, you can specify Bash, @code{awk}, Perl, or some other
3687 interpreter and write the rest of the script file in that language.
3689 The arguments to the interpreter
3690 consist of one or more optional arguments following the interpreter
3691 name on the first line of the script file, followed by the name of
3692 the script file, followed by the rest of the arguments supplied to the
3694 The details of how the interpreter line is split into an interpreter name
3695 and a set of arguments vary across systems.
3696 Bash will perform this action on operating systems that do not handle it
3698 Note that some older versions of Unix limit the interpreter
3699 name and a single argument to a maximum of 32 characters, so it's not
3700 portable to assume that using more than one argument will work.
3702 Bash scripts often begin with @code{#! /bin/bash} (assuming that
3703 Bash has been installed in @file{/bin}), since this ensures that
3704 Bash will be used to interpret the script, even if it is executed
3705 under another shell. It's a common idiom to use @code{env} to find
3706 @code{bash} even if it's been installed in another directory:
3707 @code{#!/usr/bin/env bash} will find the first occurrence of @code{bash}
3710 @node Shell Builtin Commands
3711 @chapter Shell Builtin Commands
3714 * Bourne Shell Builtins:: Builtin commands inherited from the Bourne
3716 * Bash Builtins:: Table of builtins specific to Bash.
3717 * Modifying Shell Behavior:: Builtins to modify shell attributes and
3719 * Special Builtins:: Builtin commands classified specially by
3723 Builtin commands are contained within the shell itself.
3724 When the name of a builtin command is used as the first word of
3725 a simple command (@pxref{Simple Commands}), the shell executes
3726 the command directly, without invoking another program.
3727 Builtin commands are necessary to implement functionality impossible
3728 or inconvenient to obtain with separate utilities.
3730 This section briefly describes the builtins which Bash inherits from
3731 the Bourne Shell, as well as the builtin commands which are unique
3732 to or have been extended in Bash.
3734 Several builtin commands are described in other chapters: builtin
3735 commands which provide the Bash interface to the job control
3736 facilities (@pxref{Job Control Builtins}), the directory stack
3737 (@pxref{Directory Stack Builtins}), the command history
3738 (@pxref{Bash History Builtins}), and the programmable completion
3739 facilities (@pxref{Programmable Completion Builtins}).
3741 Many of the builtins have been extended by @sc{posix} or Bash.
3743 Unless otherwise noted, each builtin command documented as accepting
3744 options preceded by @samp{-} accepts @samp{--}
3745 to signify the end of the options.
3746 The @code{:}, @code{true}, @code{false}, and @code{test}/@code{[}
3747 builtins do not accept options and do not treat @samp{--} specially.
3748 The @code{exit}, @code{logout}, @code{return},
3749 @code{break}, @code{continue}, @code{let},
3750 and @code{shift} builtins accept and process arguments beginning
3751 with @samp{-} without requiring @samp{--}.
3752 Other builtins that accept arguments but are not specified as accepting
3753 options interpret arguments beginning with @samp{-} as invalid options and
3754 require @samp{--} to prevent this interpretation.
3756 @node Bourne Shell Builtins
3757 @section Bourne Shell Builtins
3759 The following shell builtin commands are inherited from the Bourne Shell.
3760 These commands are implemented as specified by the @sc{posix} standard.
3763 @item : @r{(a colon)}
3769 Do nothing beyond expanding @var{arguments} and performing redirections.
3770 The return status is zero.
3772 @item . @r{(a period)}
3775 . @var{filename} [@var{arguments}]
3778 Read and execute commands from the @var{filename} argument in the
3779 current shell context. If @var{filename} does not contain a slash,
3780 the @env{PATH} variable is used to find @var{filename},
3781 but @var{filename} does not need to be executable.
3782 When Bash is not in @sc{posix} mode, it searches the current directory
3783 if @var{filename} is not found in @env{$PATH}.
3784 If any @var{arguments} are supplied, they become the positional
3785 parameters when @var{filename} is executed. Otherwise the positional
3786 parameters are unchanged.
3787 If the @option{-T} option is enabled, @code{.} inherits any trap on
3788 @code{DEBUG}; if it is not, any @code{DEBUG} trap string is saved and
3789 restored around the call to @code{.}, and @code{.} unsets the
3790 @code{DEBUG} trap while it executes.
3791 If @option{-T} is not set, and the sourced file changes
3792 the @code{DEBUG} trap, the new value is retained when @code{.} completes.
3793 The return status is the exit status of the last command executed, or
3794 zero if no commands are executed. If @var{filename} is not found, or
3795 cannot be read, the return status is non-zero.
3796 This builtin is equivalent to @code{source}.
3804 Exit from a @code{for}, @code{while}, @code{until}, or @code{select} loop.
3805 If @var{n} is supplied, the @var{n}th enclosing loop is exited.
3806 @var{n} must be greater than or equal to 1.
3807 The return status is zero unless @var{n} is not greater than or equal to 1.
3812 cd [-L|[-P [-e]] [-@@] [@var{directory}]
3815 Change the current working directory to @var{directory}.
3816 If @var{directory} is not supplied, the value of the @env{HOME}
3817 shell variable is used.
3818 If the shell variable
3819 @env{CDPATH} exists, it is used as a search path:
3820 each directory name in @env{CDPATH} is searched for
3821 @var{directory}, with alternative directory names in @env{CDPATH}
3822 separated by a colon (@samp{:}).
3823 If @var{directory} begins with a slash, @env{CDPATH} is not used.
3825 The @option{-P} option means to not follow symbolic links: symbolic links
3826 are resolved while @code{cd} is traversing @var{directory} and before
3827 processing an instance of @samp{..} in @var{directory}.
3829 By default, or when the @option{-L} option is supplied, symbolic links
3830 in @var{directory} are resolved after @code{cd} processes an instance
3831 of @samp{..} in @var{directory}.
3833 If @samp{..} appears in @var{directory}, it is processed by removing the
3834 immediately preceding pathname component, back to a slash or the beginning
3837 If the @option{-e} option is supplied with @option{-P}
3838 and the current working directory cannot be successfully determined
3839 after a successful directory change, @code{cd} will return an unsuccessful
3842 On systems that support it, the @option{-@@} option presents the extended
3843 attributes associated with a file as a directory.
3845 If @var{directory} is @samp{-}, it is converted to @env{$OLDPWD}
3846 before the directory change is attempted.
3848 If a non-empty directory name from @env{CDPATH} is used, or if
3849 @samp{-} is the first argument, and the directory change is
3850 successful, the absolute pathname of the new working directory is
3851 written to the standard output.
3853 If the directory change is successful, @code{cd} sets the value of the
3854 @env{PWD} environment variable to the new directory name, and sets the
3855 @env{OLDPWD} environment variable to the value of the current working
3856 directory before the change.
3858 The return status is zero if the directory is successfully changed,
3867 Resume the next iteration of an enclosing @code{for}, @code{while},
3868 @code{until}, or @code{select} loop.
3869 If @var{n} is supplied, the execution of the @var{n}th enclosing loop
3871 @var{n} must be greater than or equal to 1.
3872 The return status is zero unless @var{n} is not greater than or equal to 1.
3877 eval [@var{arguments}]
3880 The arguments are concatenated together into a single command, which is
3881 then read and executed, and its exit status returned as the exit status
3883 If there are no arguments or only empty arguments, the return status is
3889 exec [-cl] [-a @var{name}] [@var{command} [@var{arguments}]]
3893 is supplied, it replaces the shell without creating a new process.
3894 If the @option{-l} option is supplied, the shell places a dash at the
3895 beginning of the zeroth argument passed to @var{command}.
3896 This is what the @code{login} program does.
3897 The @option{-c} option causes @var{command} to be executed with an empty
3899 If @option{-a} is supplied, the shell passes @var{name} as the zeroth
3900 argument to @var{command}.
3902 cannot be executed for some reason, a non-interactive shell exits,
3903 unless the @code{execfail} shell option
3904 is enabled. In that case, it returns failure.
3905 An interactive shell returns failure if the file cannot be executed.
3906 A subshell exits unconditionally if @code{exec} fails.
3907 If no @var{command} is specified, redirections may be used to affect
3908 the current shell environment. If there are no redirection errors, the
3909 return status is zero; otherwise the return status is non-zero.
3917 Exit the shell, returning a status of @var{n} to the shell's parent.
3918 If @var{n} is omitted, the exit status is that of the last command executed.
3919 Any trap on @code{EXIT} is executed before the shell terminates.
3924 export [-fn] [-p] [@var{name}[=@var{value}]]
3927 Mark each @var{name} to be passed to child processes
3928 in the environment. If the @option{-f} option is supplied, the @var{name}s
3929 refer to shell functions; otherwise the names refer to shell variables.
3930 The @option{-n} option means to no longer mark each @var{name} for export.
3931 If no @var{name}s are supplied, or if the @option{-p} option is given, a
3932 list of names of all exported variables is displayed.
3933 The @option{-p} option displays output in a form that may be reused as input.
3934 If a variable name is followed by =@var{value}, the value of
3935 the variable is set to @var{value}.
3937 The return status is zero unless an invalid option is supplied, one of
3938 the names is not a valid shell variable name, or @option{-f} is supplied
3939 with a name that is not a shell function.
3944 getopts @var{optstring} @var{name} [@var{arg} @dots{}]
3947 @code{getopts} is used by shell scripts to parse positional parameters.
3948 @var{optstring} contains the option characters to be recognized; if a
3949 character is followed by a colon, the option is expected to have an
3950 argument, which should be separated from it by whitespace.
3951 The colon (@samp{:}) and question mark (@samp{?}) may not be
3952 used as option characters.
3953 Each time it is invoked, @code{getopts}
3954 places the next option in the shell variable @var{name}, initializing
3955 @var{name} if it does not exist,
3956 and the index of the next argument to be processed into the
3957 variable @env{OPTIND}.
3958 @env{OPTIND} is initialized to 1 each time the shell or a shell script
3960 When an option requires an argument,
3961 @code{getopts} places that argument into the variable @env{OPTARG}.
3962 The shell does not reset @env{OPTIND} automatically; it must be manually
3963 reset between multiple calls to @code{getopts} within the same shell
3964 invocation if a new set of parameters is to be used.
3966 When the end of options is encountered, @code{getopts} exits with a
3967 return value greater than zero.
3968 @env{OPTIND} is set to the index of the first non-option argument,
3969 and @var{name} is set to @samp{?}.
3972 normally parses the positional parameters, but if more arguments are
3973 supplied as @var{arg} values, @code{getopts} parses those instead.
3975 @code{getopts} can report errors in two ways. If the first character of
3976 @var{optstring} is a colon, @var{silent}
3977 error reporting is used. In normal operation, diagnostic messages
3978 are printed when invalid options or missing option arguments are
3980 If the variable @env{OPTERR}
3981 is set to 0, no error messages will be displayed, even if the first
3982 character of @code{optstring} is not a colon.
3984 If an invalid option is seen,
3985 @code{getopts} places @samp{?} into @var{name} and, if not silent,
3986 prints an error message and unsets @env{OPTARG}.
3987 If @code{getopts} is silent, the option character found is placed in
3988 @env{OPTARG} and no diagnostic message is printed.
3990 If a required argument is not found, and @code{getopts}
3991 is not silent, a question mark (@samp{?}) is placed in @var{name},
3992 @code{OPTARG} is unset, and a diagnostic message is printed.
3993 If @code{getopts} is silent, then a colon (@samp{:}) is placed in
3994 @var{name} and @env{OPTARG} is set to the option character found.
3999 hash [-r] [-p @var{filename}] [-dt] [@var{name}]
4002 Each time @code{hash} is invoked, it remembers the full pathnames of the
4003 commands specified as @var{name} arguments,
4004 so they need not be searched for on subsequent invocations.
4005 The commands are found by searching through the directories listed in
4007 Any previously-remembered pathname is discarded.
4008 The @option{-p} option inhibits the path search, and @var{filename} is
4009 used as the location of @var{name}.
4010 The @option{-r} option causes the shell to forget all remembered locations.
4011 The @option{-d} option causes the shell to forget the remembered location
4013 If the @option{-t} option is supplied, the full pathname to which each
4014 @var{name} corresponds is printed. If multiple @var{name} arguments are
4015 supplied with @option{-t}, the @var{name} is printed before the hashed
4017 The @option{-l} option causes output to be displayed in a format
4018 that may be reused as input.
4019 If no arguments are given, or if only @option{-l} is supplied,
4020 information about remembered commands is printed.
4021 The return status is zero unless a @var{name} is not found or an invalid
4030 Print the absolute pathname of the current working directory.
4031 If the @option{-P} option is supplied, the pathname printed will not
4032 contain symbolic links.
4033 If the @option{-L} option is supplied, the pathname printed may contain
4035 The return status is zero unless an error is encountered while
4036 determining the name of the current directory or an invalid option
4042 readonly [-aAf] [-p] [@var{name}[=@var{value}]] @dots{}
4045 Mark each @var{name} as readonly.
4046 The values of these names may not be changed by subsequent assignment.
4047 If the @option{-f} option is supplied, each @var{name} refers to a shell
4049 The @option{-a} option means each @var{name} refers to an indexed
4050 array variable; the @option{-A} option means each @var{name} refers
4051 to an associative array variable.
4052 If both options are supplied, @option{-A} takes precedence.
4053 If no @var{name} arguments are given, or if the @option{-p}
4054 option is supplied, a list of all readonly names is printed.
4055 The other options may be used to restrict the output to a subset of
4056 the set of readonly names.
4057 The @option{-p} option causes output to be displayed in a format that
4058 may be reused as input.
4059 If a variable name is followed by =@var{value}, the value of
4060 the variable is set to @var{value}.
4061 The return status is zero unless an invalid option is supplied, one of
4062 the @var{name} arguments is not a valid shell variable or function name,
4063 or the @option{-f} option is supplied with a name that is not a shell function.
4071 Cause a shell function to stop executing and return the value @var{n}
4073 If @var{n} is not supplied, the return value is the exit status of the
4074 last command executed in the function.
4075 If @code{return} is executed by a trap handler, the last command used to
4076 determine the status is the last command executed before the trap handler.
4077 If @code{return} is executed during a @code{DEBUG} trap, the last command
4078 used to determine the status is the last command executed by the trap
4079 handler before @code{return} was invoked.
4080 @code{return} may also be used to terminate execution of a script
4081 being executed with the @code{.} (@code{source}) builtin,
4082 returning either @var{n} or
4083 the exit status of the last command executed within the script as the exit
4084 status of the script.
4085 If @var{n} is supplied, the return value is its least significant
4087 Any command associated with the @code{RETURN} trap is executed
4088 before execution resumes after the function or script.
4089 The return status is non-zero if @code{return} is supplied a non-numeric
4090 argument or is used outside a function
4091 and not during the execution of a script by @code{.} or @code{source}.
4099 Shift the positional parameters to the left by @var{n}.
4100 The positional parameters from @var{n}+1 @dots{} @code{$#} are
4101 renamed to @code{$1} @dots{} @code{$#}-@var{n}.
4102 Parameters represented by the numbers @code{$#} down to @code{$#}-@var{n}+1
4104 @var{n} must be a non-negative number less than or equal to @code{$#}.
4105 If @var{n} is zero or greater than @code{$#}, the positional parameters
4107 If @var{n} is not supplied, it is assumed to be 1.
4108 The return status is zero unless @var{n} is greater than @code{$#} or
4109 less than zero, non-zero otherwise.
4119 Evaluate a conditional expression @var{expr} and return a status of 0
4120 (true) or 1 (false).
4121 Each operator and operand must be a separate argument.
4122 Expressions are composed of the primaries described below in
4123 @ref{Bash Conditional Expressions}.
4124 @code{test} does not accept any options, nor does it accept and ignore
4125 an argument of @option{--} as signifying the end of options.
4127 When the @code{[} form is used, the last argument to the command must
4130 Expressions may be combined using the following operators, listed in
4131 decreasing order of precedence.
4132 The evaluation depends on the number of arguments; see below.
4133 Operator precedence is used when there are five or more arguments.
4137 True if @var{expr} is false.
4139 @item ( @var{expr} )
4140 Returns the value of @var{expr}.
4141 This may be used to override the normal precedence of operators.
4143 @item @var{expr1} -a @var{expr2}
4144 True if both @var{expr1} and @var{expr2} are true.
4146 @item @var{expr1} -o @var{expr2}
4147 True if either @var{expr1} or @var{expr2} is true.
4150 The @code{test} and @code{[} builtins evaluate conditional
4151 expressions using a set of rules based on the number of arguments.
4155 The expression is false.
4158 The expression is true if, and only if, the argument is not null.
4161 If the first argument is @samp{!}, the expression is true if and
4162 only if the second argument is null.
4163 If the first argument is one of the unary conditional operators
4164 (@pxref{Bash Conditional Expressions}), the expression
4165 is true if the unary test is true.
4166 If the first argument is not a valid unary operator, the expression is
4170 The following conditions are applied in the order listed.
4174 If the second argument is one of the binary conditional
4175 operators (@pxref{Bash Conditional Expressions}), the
4176 result of the expression is the result of the binary test using the
4177 first and third arguments as operands.
4178 The @samp{-a} and @samp{-o} operators are considered binary operators
4179 when there are three arguments.
4181 If the first argument is @samp{!}, the value is the negation of
4182 the two-argument test using the second and third arguments.
4184 If the first argument is exactly @samp{(} and the third argument is
4185 exactly @samp{)}, the result is the one-argument test of the second
4188 Otherwise, the expression is false.
4192 The following conditions are applied in the order listed.
4196 If the first argument is @samp{!}, the result is the negation of
4197 the three-argument expression composed of the remaining arguments.
4199 If the first argument is exactly @samp{(} and the fourth argument is
4200 exactly @samp{)}, the result is the two-argument test of the second
4201 and third arguments.
4203 Otherwise, the expression is parsed and evaluated according to
4204 precedence using the rules listed above.
4207 @item 5 or more arguments
4208 The expression is parsed and evaluated according to precedence
4209 using the rules listed above.
4212 When used with @code{test} or @samp{[}, the @samp{<} and @samp{>}
4213 operators sort lexicographically using ASCII ordering.
4221 Print out the user and system times used by the shell and its children.
4222 The return status is zero.
4227 trap [-lp] [@var{action}] [@var{sigspec} @dots{}]
4230 The @var{action} is a command that is read and executed when the
4231 shell receives signal @var{sigspec}. If @var{action} is absent (and
4232 there is a single @var{sigspec}) or
4233 equal to @samp{-}, each specified signal's disposition is reset
4234 to the value it had when the shell was started.
4235 If @var{action} is the null string, then the signal specified by
4236 each @var{sigspec} is ignored by the shell and commands it invokes.
4238 If no arguments are supplied, @code{trap} prints the actions
4239 associated with each trapped signal
4240 as a set of @code{trap} commands that can be reused as shell input to
4241 restore the current signal dispositions.
4242 If @var{action} is not present and @option{-p} has been supplied,
4243 @code{trap} displays the trap commands associated with each @var{sigspec},
4244 or, if no @var{sigspec}s are supplied, for all trapped signals,
4245 as a set of @code{trap} commands that can be reused as shell input to
4246 restore the current signal dispositions.
4248 The @option{-l} option causes @code{trap} to print a list of signal names
4249 and their corresponding numbers.
4250 Each @var{sigspec} is either a signal name or a signal number.
4251 Signal names are case insensitive and the @code{SIG} prefix is optional.
4254 is @code{0} or @code{EXIT}, @var{action} is executed when the shell exits.
4255 If a @var{sigspec} is @code{DEBUG}, @var{action} is executed
4256 before every simple command, @code{for} command, @code{case} command,
4257 @code{select} command, (( arithmetic command, [[ conditional command,
4258 arithmetic @code{for} command,
4259 and before the first command executes in a shell function.
4260 Refer to the description of the @code{extdebug} option to the
4261 @code{shopt} builtin (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}) for details of its
4262 effect on the @code{DEBUG} trap.
4263 If a @var{sigspec} is @code{RETURN}, @var{action} is executed
4264 each time a shell function or a script executed with the @code{.} or
4265 @code{source} builtins finishes executing.
4267 If a @var{sigspec} is @code{ERR}, @var{action}
4268 is executed whenever
4269 a pipeline (which may consist of a single simple
4270 command), a list, or a compound command returns a
4271 non-zero exit status,
4272 subject to the following conditions.
4273 The @code{ERR} trap is not executed if the failed command is part of the
4274 command list immediately following an @code{until} or @code{while} keyword,
4275 part of the test following the @code{if} or @code{elif} reserved words,
4276 part of a command executed in a @code{&&} or @code{||} list
4277 except the command following the final @code{&&} or @code{||},
4278 any command in a pipeline but the last,
4279 or if the command's return
4280 status is being inverted using @code{!}.
4281 These are the same conditions obeyed by the @code{errexit} (@option{-e})
4284 Signals ignored upon entry to a non-interactive shell cannot be trapped or
4286 Interactive shells permit trapping signals ignored on entry.
4287 Trapped signals that are not being ignored are reset to their original
4288 values in a subshell or subshell environment when one is created.
4290 The return status is zero unless a @var{sigspec} does not specify a
4296 umask [-p] [-S] [@var{mode}]
4299 Set the shell process's file creation mask to @var{mode}. If
4300 @var{mode} begins with a digit, it is interpreted as an octal number;
4301 if not, it is interpreted as a symbolic mode mask similar
4302 to that accepted by the @code{chmod} command. If @var{mode} is
4303 omitted, the current value of the mask is printed. If the @option{-S}
4304 option is supplied without a @var{mode} argument, the mask is printed
4305 in a symbolic format.
4306 If the @option{-p} option is supplied, and @var{mode}
4307 is omitted, the output is in a form that may be reused as input.
4308 The return status is zero if the mode is successfully changed or if
4309 no @var{mode} argument is supplied, and non-zero otherwise.
4311 Note that when the mode is interpreted as an octal number, each number
4312 of the umask is subtracted from @code{7}. Thus, a umask of @code{022}
4313 results in permissions of @code{755}.
4318 unset [-fnv] [@var{name}]
4321 Remove each variable or function @var{name}.
4322 If the @option{-v} option is given, each
4323 @var{name} refers to a shell variable and that variable is removed.
4324 If the @option{-f} option is given, the @var{name}s refer to shell
4325 functions, and the function definition is removed.
4326 If the @option{-n} option is supplied, and @var{name} is a variable with
4327 the @code{nameref} attribute, @var{name} will be unset rather than the
4328 variable it references.
4329 @option{-n} has no effect if the @option{-f} option is supplied.
4330 If no options are supplied, each @var{name} refers to a variable; if
4331 there is no variable by that name, a function with that name, if any, is
4333 Readonly variables and functions may not be unset.
4334 Some shell variables lose their special behavior if they are unset; such
4335 behavior is noted in the description of the individual variables.
4336 The return status is zero unless a @var{name} is readonly or may not be unset.
4340 @section Bash Builtin Commands
4342 This section describes builtin commands which are unique to
4343 or have been extended in Bash.
4344 Some of these commands are specified in the @sc{posix} standard.
4351 alias [-p] [@var{name}[=@var{value}] @dots{}]
4354 Without arguments or with the @option{-p} option, @code{alias} prints
4355 the list of aliases on the standard output in a form that allows
4356 them to be reused as input.
4357 If arguments are supplied, an alias is defined for each @var{name}
4358 whose @var{value} is given. If no @var{value} is given, the name
4359 and value of the alias is printed.
4360 Aliases are described in @ref{Aliases}.
4365 bind [-m @var{keymap}] [-lpsvPSVX]
4366 bind [-m @var{keymap}] [-q @var{function}] [-u @var{function}] [-r @var{keyseq}]
4367 bind [-m @var{keymap}] -f @var{filename}
4368 bind [-m @var{keymap}] -x @var{keyseq:shell-command}
4369 bind [-m @var{keymap}] @var{keyseq:function-name}
4370 bind [-m @var{keymap}] @var{keyseq:readline-command}
4371 bind @var{readline-command-line}
4374 Display current Readline (@pxref{Command Line Editing})
4375 key and function bindings,
4376 bind a key sequence to a Readline function or macro,
4377 or set a Readline variable.
4378 Each non-option argument is a command as it would appear in a
4379 Readline initialization file (@pxref{Readline Init File}),
4380 but each binding or command must be passed as a separate argument; e.g.,
4381 @samp{"\C-x\C-r":re-read-init-file}.
4383 Options, if supplied, have the following meanings:
4386 @item -m @var{keymap}
4387 Use @var{keymap} as the keymap to be affected by
4388 the subsequent bindings. Acceptable @var{keymap}
4391 @code{emacs-standard},
4396 @code{vi-command}, and
4398 @code{vi} is equivalent to @code{vi-command} (@code{vi-move} is also a
4399 synonym); @code{emacs} is equivalent to @code{emacs-standard}.
4402 List the names of all Readline functions.
4405 Display Readline function names and bindings in such a way that they
4406 can be used as input or in a Readline initialization file.
4409 List current Readline function names and bindings.
4412 Display Readline variable names and values in such a way that they
4413 can be used as input or in a Readline initialization file.
4416 List current Readline variable names and values.
4419 Display Readline key sequences bound to macros and the strings they output
4420 in such a way that they can be used as input or in a Readline
4421 initialization file.
4424 Display Readline key sequences bound to macros and the strings they output.
4426 @item -f @var{filename}
4427 Read key bindings from @var{filename}.
4429 @item -q @var{function}
4430 Query about which keys invoke the named @var{function}.
4432 @item -u @var{function}
4433 Unbind all keys bound to the named @var{function}.
4435 @item -r @var{keyseq}
4436 Remove any current binding for @var{keyseq}.
4438 @item -x @var{keyseq:shell-command}
4439 Cause @var{shell-command} to be executed whenever @var{keyseq} is
4441 When @var{shell-command} is executed, the shell sets the
4442 @code{READLINE_LINE} variable to the contents of the Readline line
4443 buffer and the @code{READLINE_POINT} and @code{READLINE_MARK} variables
4444 to the current location of the insertion point and the saved insertion
4445 point (the @var{mark}), respectively.
4446 The shell assigns any numeric argument the user supplied to the
4447 @code{READLINE_ARGUMENT} variable.
4448 If there was no argument, that variable is not set.
4449 If the executed command changes the value of any of @code{READLINE_LINE},
4450 @code{READLINE_POINT}, or @code{READLINE_MARK}, those new values will be
4451 reflected in the editing state.
4454 List all key sequences bound to shell commands and the associated commands
4455 in a format that can be reused as input.
4459 The return status is zero unless an invalid option is supplied or an
4465 builtin [@var{shell-builtin} [@var{args}]]
4468 Run a shell builtin, passing it @var{args}, and return its exit status.
4469 This is useful when defining a shell function with the same
4470 name as a shell builtin, retaining the functionality of the builtin within
4472 The return status is non-zero if @var{shell-builtin} is not a shell
4481 Returns the context of any active subroutine call (a shell function or
4482 a script executed with the @code{.} or @code{source} builtins).
4484 Without @var{expr}, @code{caller} displays the line number and source
4485 filename of the current subroutine call.
4486 If a non-negative integer is supplied as @var{expr}, @code{caller}
4487 displays the line number, subroutine name, and source file corresponding
4488 to that position in the current execution call stack. This extra
4489 information may be used, for example, to print a stack trace. The
4490 current frame is frame 0.
4492 The return value is 0 unless the shell is not executing a subroutine
4493 call or @var{expr} does not correspond to a valid position in the
4499 command [-pVv] @var{command} [@var{arguments} @dots{}]
4502 Runs @var{command} with @var{arguments} ignoring any shell function
4503 named @var{command}.
4504 Only shell builtin commands or commands found by searching the
4505 @env{PATH} are executed.
4506 If there is a shell function named @code{ls}, running @samp{command ls}
4507 within the function will execute the external command @code{ls}
4508 instead of calling the function recursively.
4509 The @option{-p} option means to use a default value for @env{PATH}
4510 that is guaranteed to find all of the standard utilities.
4511 The return status in this case is 127 if @var{command} cannot be
4512 found or an error occurred, and the exit status of @var{command}
4515 If either the @option{-V} or @option{-v} option is supplied, a
4516 description of @var{command} is printed. The @option{-v} option
4517 causes a single word indicating the command or file name used to
4518 invoke @var{command} to be displayed; the @option{-V} option produces
4519 a more verbose description. In this case, the return status is
4520 zero if @var{command} is found, and non-zero if not.
4525 declare [-aAfFgiIlnrtux] [-p] [@var{name}[=@var{value}] @dots{}]
4528 Declare variables and give them attributes. If no @var{name}s
4529 are given, then display the values of variables instead.
4531 The @option{-p} option will display the attributes and values of each
4533 When @option{-p} is used with @var{name} arguments, additional options,
4534 other than @option{-f} and @option{-F}, are ignored.
4536 When @option{-p} is supplied without @var{name} arguments, @code{declare}
4537 will display the attributes and values of all variables having the
4538 attributes specified by the additional options.
4539 If no other options are supplied with @option{-p}, @code{declare} will
4540 display the attributes and values of all shell variables. The @option{-f}
4541 option will restrict the display to shell functions.
4543 The @option{-F} option inhibits the display of function definitions;
4544 only the function name and attributes are printed.
4545 If the @code{extdebug} shell option is enabled using @code{shopt}
4546 (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}), the source file name and line number where
4547 each @var{name} is defined are displayed as well.
4548 @option{-F} implies @option{-f}.
4550 The @option{-g} option forces variables to be created or modified at
4551 the global scope, even when @code{declare} is executed in a shell function.
4552 It is ignored in all other cases.
4554 The @option{-I} option causes local variables to inherit the attributes
4555 (except the @code{nameref} attribute)
4556 and value of any existing variable with the same
4557 @var{name} at a surrounding scope.
4558 If there is no existing variable, the local variable is initially unset.
4560 The following options can be used to restrict output to variables with
4561 the specified attributes or to give variables attributes:
4565 Each @var{name} is an indexed array variable (@pxref{Arrays}).
4568 Each @var{name} is an associative array variable (@pxref{Arrays}).
4571 Use function names only.
4574 The variable is to be treated as
4575 an integer; arithmetic evaluation (@pxref{Shell Arithmetic}) is
4576 performed when the variable is assigned a value.
4579 When the variable is assigned a value, all upper-case characters are
4580 converted to lower-case.
4581 The upper-case attribute is disabled.
4584 Give each @var{name} the @code{nameref} attribute, making
4585 it a name reference to another variable.
4586 That other variable is defined by the value of @var{name}.
4587 All references, assignments, and attribute modifications
4588 to @var{name}, except for those using or changing the
4589 @option{-n} attribute itself, are performed on the variable referenced by
4591 The nameref attribute cannot be applied to array variables.
4594 Make @var{name}s readonly. These names cannot then be assigned values
4595 by subsequent assignment statements or unset.
4598 Give each @var{name} the @code{trace} attribute.
4599 Traced functions inherit the @code{DEBUG} and @code{RETURN} traps from
4601 The trace attribute has no special meaning for variables.
4604 When the variable is assigned a value, all lower-case characters are
4605 converted to upper-case.
4606 The lower-case attribute is disabled.
4609 Mark each @var{name} for export to subsequent commands via
4613 Using @samp{+} instead of @samp{-} turns off the attribute instead,
4614 with the exceptions that @samp{+a} and @samp{+A}
4615 may not be used to destroy array variables and @samp{+r} will not
4616 remove the readonly attribute.
4617 When used in a function, @code{declare} makes each @var{name} local,
4618 as with the @code{local} command, unless the @option{-g} option is used.
4619 If a variable name is followed by =@var{value}, the value of the variable
4620 is set to @var{value}.
4622 When using @option{-a} or @option{-A} and the compound assignment syntax to
4623 create array variables, additional attributes do not take effect until
4624 subsequent assignments.
4626 The return status is zero unless an invalid option is encountered,
4627 an attempt is made to define a function using @samp{-f foo=bar},
4628 an attempt is made to assign a value to a readonly variable,
4629 an attempt is made to assign a value to an array variable without
4630 using the compound assignment syntax (@pxref{Arrays}),
4631 one of the @var{name}s is not a valid shell variable name,
4632 an attempt is made to turn off readonly status for a readonly variable,
4633 an attempt is made to turn off array status for an array variable,
4634 or an attempt is made to display a non-existent function with @option{-f}.
4639 echo [-neE] [@var{arg} @dots{}]
4642 Output the @var{arg}s, separated by spaces, terminated with a
4644 The return status is 0 unless a write error occurs.
4645 If @option{-n} is specified, the trailing newline is suppressed.
4646 If the @option{-e} option is given, interpretation of the following
4647 backslash-escaped characters is enabled.
4648 The @option{-E} option disables the interpretation of these escape characters,
4649 even on systems where they are interpreted by default.
4650 The @code{xpg_echo} shell option may be used to
4651 dynamically determine whether or not @code{echo} expands these
4652 escape characters by default.
4653 @code{echo} does not interpret @option{--} to mean the end of options.
4655 @code{echo} interprets the following escape sequences:
4662 suppress further output
4679 the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value @var{nnn}
4680 (zero to three octal digits)
4682 the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value @var{HH}
4683 (one or two hex digits)
4685 the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value
4686 @var{HHHH} (one to four hex digits)
4687 @item \U@var{HHHHHHHH}
4688 the Unicode (ISO/IEC 10646) character whose value is the hexadecimal value
4689 @var{HHHHHHHH} (one to eight hex digits)
4695 enable [-a] [-dnps] [-f @var{filename}] [@var{name} @dots{}]
4698 Enable and disable builtin shell commands.
4699 Disabling a builtin allows a disk command which has the same name
4700 as a shell builtin to be executed without specifying a full pathname,
4701 even though the shell normally searches for builtins before disk commands.
4702 If @option{-n} is used, the @var{name}s become disabled. Otherwise
4703 @var{name}s are enabled. For example, to use the @code{test} binary
4704 found via @env{$PATH} instead of the shell builtin version, type
4705 @samp{enable -n test}.
4707 If the @option{-p} option is supplied, or no @var{name} arguments appear,
4708 a list of shell builtins is printed. With no other arguments, the list
4709 consists of all enabled shell builtins.
4710 The @option{-a} option means to list
4711 each builtin with an indication of whether or not it is enabled.
4713 The @option{-f} option means to load the new builtin command @var{name}
4714 from shared object @var{filename}, on systems that support dynamic loading.
4715 Bash will use the value of the @env{BASH_LOADABLES_PATH} variable as a
4716 colon-separated list of directories in which to search for @var{filename}.
4717 The default is system-dependent.
4718 The @option{-d} option will delete a builtin loaded with @option{-f}.
4720 If there are no options, a list of the shell builtins is displayed.
4721 The @option{-s} option restricts @code{enable} to the @sc{posix} special
4722 builtins. If @option{-s} is used with @option{-f}, the new builtin becomes
4723 a special builtin (@pxref{Special Builtins}).
4725 If no options are supplied and a @var{name} is not a shell builtin,
4726 @code{enable} will attempt to load @var{name} from a shared object named
4727 @var{name}, as if the command were
4728 @samp{enable -f @var{name} @var{name}}.
4730 The return status is zero unless a @var{name} is not a shell builtin
4731 or there is an error loading a new builtin from a shared object.
4736 help [-dms] [@var{pattern}]
4739 Display helpful information about builtin commands.
4740 If @var{pattern} is specified, @code{help} gives detailed help
4741 on all commands matching @var{pattern}, otherwise a list of
4742 the builtins is printed.
4744 Options, if supplied, have the following meanings:
4748 Display a short description of each @var{pattern}
4750 Display the description of each @var{pattern} in a manpage-like format
4752 Display only a short usage synopsis for each @var{pattern}
4755 The return status is zero unless no command matches @var{pattern}.
4760 let @var{expression} [@var{expression} @dots{}]
4763 The @code{let} builtin allows arithmetic to be performed on shell
4764 variables. Each @var{expression} is evaluated according to the
4765 rules given below in @ref{Shell Arithmetic}. If the
4766 last @var{expression} evaluates to 0, @code{let} returns 1;
4767 otherwise 0 is returned.
4772 local [@var{option}] @var{name}[=@var{value}] @dots{}
4775 For each argument, a local variable named @var{name} is created,
4776 and assigned @var{value}.
4777 The @var{option} can be any of the options accepted by @code{declare}.
4778 @code{local} can only be used within a function; it makes the variable
4779 @var{name} have a visible scope restricted to that function and its
4781 If @var{name} is @samp{-}, the set of shell options is made local to the
4782 function in which @code{local} is invoked: shell options changed using
4783 the @code{set} builtin inside the function are restored to their original
4784 values when the function returns.
4785 The restore is effected as if a series of @code{set} commands were executed
4786 to restore the values that were in place before the function.
4787 The return status is zero unless @code{local} is used outside
4788 a function, an invalid @var{name} is supplied, or @var{name} is a
4797 Exit a login shell, returning a status of @var{n} to the shell's
4803 mapfile [-d @var{delim}] [-n @var{count}] [-O @var{origin}] [-s @var{count}]
4804 [-t] [-u @var{fd}] [-C @var{callback}] [-c @var{quantum}] [@var{array}]
4807 Read lines from the standard input into the indexed array variable @var{array},
4808 or from file descriptor @var{fd}
4809 if the @option{-u} option is supplied.
4810 The variable @code{MAPFILE} is the default @var{array}.
4811 Options, if supplied, have the following meanings:
4816 The first character of @var{delim} is used to terminate each input line,
4817 rather than newline.
4818 If @var{delim} is the empty string, @code{mapfile} will terminate a line
4819 when it reads a NUL character.
4821 Copy at most @var{count} lines. If @var{count} is 0, all lines are copied.
4823 Begin assigning to @var{array} at index @var{origin}.
4824 The default index is 0.
4826 Discard the first @var{count} lines read.
4828 Remove a trailing @var{delim} (default newline) from each line read.
4830 Read lines from file descriptor @var{fd} instead of the standard input.
4832 Evaluate @var{callback} each time @var{quantum} lines are read.
4833 The @option{-c} option specifies @var{quantum}.
4835 Specify the number of lines read between each call to @var{callback}.
4838 If @option{-C} is specified without @option{-c},
4839 the default quantum is 5000.
4840 When @var{callback} is evaluated, it is supplied the index of the next
4841 array element to be assigned and the line to be assigned to that element
4842 as additional arguments.
4843 @var{callback} is evaluated after the line is read but before the
4844 array element is assigned.
4846 If not supplied with an explicit origin, @code{mapfile} will clear @var{array}
4847 before assigning to it.
4849 @code{mapfile} returns successfully unless an invalid option or option
4850 argument is supplied, @var{array} is invalid or unassignable, or @var{array}
4851 is not an indexed array.
4856 printf [-v @var{var}] @var{format} [@var{arguments}]
4859 Write the formatted @var{arguments} to the standard output under the
4860 control of the @var{format}.
4861 The @option{-v} option causes the output to be assigned to the variable
4862 @var{var} rather than being printed to the standard output.
4864 The @var{format} is a character string which contains three types of objects:
4865 plain characters, which are simply copied to standard output, character
4866 escape sequences, which are converted and copied to the standard output, and
4867 format specifications, each of which causes printing of the next successive
4869 In addition to the standard @code{printf(1)} formats, @code{printf}
4870 interprets the following extensions:
4874 Causes @code{printf} to expand backslash escape sequences in the
4875 corresponding @var{argument} in the same way as @code{echo -e}
4876 (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
4878 Causes @code{printf} to output the
4879 corresponding @var{argument} in a format that can be reused as shell input.
4881 like @code{%q}, but applies any supplied precision to the @var{argument}
4883 @item %(@var{datefmt})T
4884 Causes @code{printf} to output the date-time string resulting from using
4885 @var{datefmt} as a format string for @code{strftime}(3).
4886 The corresponding @var{argument} is an integer representing the number of
4887 seconds since the epoch.
4888 Two special argument values may be used: -1 represents the current
4889 time, and -2 represents the time the shell was invoked.
4890 If no argument is specified, conversion behaves as if -1 had been given.
4891 This is an exception to the usual @code{printf} behavior.
4895 The %b, %q, and %T directives all use the field width and precision
4896 arguments from the format specification and write that many bytes from
4897 (or use that wide a field for) the expanded argument, which usually
4898 contains more characters than the original.
4900 Arguments to non-string format specifiers are treated as C language constants,
4901 except that a leading plus or minus sign is allowed, and if the leading
4902 character is a single or double quote, the value is the ASCII value of
4903 the following character.
4905 The @var{format} is reused as necessary to consume all of the @var{arguments}.
4906 If the @var{format} requires more @var{arguments} than are supplied, the
4907 extra format specifications behave as if a zero value or null string, as
4908 appropriate, had been supplied. The return value is zero on success,
4909 non-zero on failure.
4914 read [-ers] [-a @var{aname}] [-d @var{delim}] [-i @var{text}] [-n @var{nchars}]
4915 [-N @var{nchars}] [-p @var{prompt}] [-t @var{timeout}] [-u @var{fd}] [@var{name} @dots{}]
4918 One line is read from the standard input, or from the file descriptor
4919 @var{fd} supplied as an argument to the @option{-u} option,
4920 split into words as described above in @ref{Word Splitting},
4922 is assigned to the first @var{name}, the second word to the second @var{name},
4924 If there are more words than names,
4925 the remaining words and their intervening delimiters are assigned
4926 to the last @var{name}.
4927 If there are fewer words read from the input stream than names,
4928 the remaining names are assigned empty values.
4929 The characters in the value of the @env{IFS} variable
4930 are used to split the line into words using the same rules the shell
4931 uses for expansion (described above in @ref{Word Splitting}).
4932 The backslash character @samp{\} may be used to remove any special
4933 meaning for the next character read and for line continuation.
4935 Options, if supplied, have the following meanings:
4938 @item -a @var{aname}
4939 The words are assigned to sequential indices of the array variable
4940 @var{aname}, starting at 0.
4941 All elements are removed from @var{aname} before the assignment.
4942 Other @var{name} arguments are ignored.
4944 @item -d @var{delim}
4945 The first character of @var{delim} is used to terminate the input line,
4946 rather than newline.
4947 If @var{delim} is the empty string, @code{read} will terminate a line
4948 when it reads a NUL character.
4951 Readline (@pxref{Command Line Editing}) is used to obtain the line.
4952 Readline uses the current (or default, if line editing was not previously
4953 active) editing settings, but uses Readline's default filename completion.
4956 If Readline is being used to read the line, @var{text} is placed into
4957 the editing buffer before editing begins.
4959 @item -n @var{nchars}
4960 @code{read} returns after reading @var{nchars} characters rather than
4961 waiting for a complete line of input, but honors a delimiter if fewer
4962 than @var{nchars} characters are read before the delimiter.
4964 @item -N @var{nchars}
4965 @code{read} returns after reading exactly @var{nchars} characters rather
4966 than waiting for a complete line of input, unless EOF is encountered or
4967 @code{read} times out.
4968 Delimiter characters encountered in the input are
4969 not treated specially and do not cause @code{read} to return until
4970 @var{nchars} characters are read.
4971 The result is not split on the characters in @code{IFS}; the intent is
4972 that the variable is assigned exactly the characters read
4973 (with the exception of backslash; see the @option{-r} option below).
4975 @item -p @var{prompt}
4976 Display @var{prompt}, without a trailing newline, before attempting
4978 The prompt is displayed only if input is coming from a terminal.
4981 If this option is given, backslash does not act as an escape character.
4982 The backslash is considered to be part of the line.
4983 In particular, a backslash-newline pair may not then be used as a line
4987 Silent mode. If input is coming from a terminal, characters are
4990 @item -t @var{timeout}
4991 Cause @code{read} to time out and return failure if a complete line of
4992 input (or a specified number of characters)
4993 is not read within @var{timeout} seconds.
4994 @var{timeout} may be a decimal number with a fractional portion following
4996 This option is only effective if @code{read} is reading input from a
4997 terminal, pipe, or other special file; it has no effect when reading
4999 If @code{read} times out, @code{read} saves any partial input read into
5000 the specified variable @var{name}.
5001 If @var{timeout} is 0, @code{read} returns immediately, without trying to
5003 The exit status is 0 if input is available on the specified file descriptor,
5004 or the read will return EOF,
5006 The exit status is greater than 128 if the timeout is exceeded.
5009 Read input from file descriptor @var{fd}.
5012 If no @var{name}s are supplied, the line read,
5013 without the ending delimiter but otherwise unmodified,
5015 variable @env{REPLY}.
5016 The exit status is zero, unless end-of-file is encountered, @code{read}
5017 times out (in which case the status is greater than 128),
5018 a variable assignment error (such as assigning to a readonly variable) occurs,
5019 or an invalid file descriptor is supplied as the argument to @option{-u}.
5024 readarray [-d @var{delim}] [-n @var{count}] [-O @var{origin}] [-s @var{count}]
5025 [-t] [-u @var{fd}] [-C @var{callback}] [-c @var{quantum}] [@var{array}]
5028 Read lines from the standard input into the indexed array variable @var{array},
5029 or from file descriptor @var{fd}
5030 if the @option{-u} option is supplied.
5032 A synonym for @code{mapfile}.
5037 source @var{filename}
5040 A synonym for @code{.} (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
5045 type [-afptP] [@var{name} @dots{}]
5048 For each @var{name}, indicate how it would be interpreted if used as a
5051 If the @option{-t} option is used, @code{type} prints a single word
5052 which is one of @samp{alias}, @samp{function}, @samp{builtin},
5053 @samp{file} or @samp{keyword},
5054 if @var{name} is an alias, shell function, shell builtin,
5055 disk file, or shell reserved word, respectively.
5056 If the @var{name} is not found, then nothing is printed, and
5057 @code{type} returns a failure status.
5059 If the @option{-p} option is used, @code{type} either returns the name
5060 of the disk file that would be executed, or nothing if @option{-t}
5061 would not return @samp{file}.
5063 The @option{-P} option forces a path search for each @var{name}, even if
5064 @option{-t} would not return @samp{file}.
5066 If a command is hashed, @option{-p} and @option{-P} print the hashed value,
5067 which is not necessarily the file that appears first in @code{$PATH}.
5069 If the @option{-a} option is used, @code{type} returns all of the places
5070 that contain an executable named @var{file}.
5071 This includes aliases and functions, if and only if the @option{-p} option
5074 If the @option{-f} option is used, @code{type} does not attempt to find
5075 shell functions, as with the @code{command} builtin.
5077 The return status is zero if all of the @var{name}s are found, non-zero
5078 if any are not found.
5083 typeset [-afFgrxilnrtux] [-p] [@var{name}[=@var{value}] @dots{}]
5086 The @code{typeset} command is supplied for compatibility with the Korn
5088 It is a synonym for the @code{declare} builtin command.
5094 ulimit [-HS] [-bcdefiklmnpqrstuvxPRT] [@var{limit}]
5097 @code{ulimit} provides control over the resources available to processes
5098 started by the shell, on systems that allow such control. If an
5099 option is given, it is interpreted as follows:
5103 Change and report the soft limit associated with a resource.
5106 Change and report the hard limit associated with a resource.
5109 All current limits are reported; no limits are set.
5112 The maximum socket buffer size.
5115 The maximum size of core files created.
5118 The maximum size of a process's data segment.
5121 The maximum scheduling priority ("nice").
5124 The maximum size of files written by the shell and its children.
5127 The maximum number of pending signals.
5130 The maximum number of kqueues that may be allocated.
5133 The maximum size that may be locked into memory.
5136 The maximum resident set size (many systems do not honor this limit).
5139 The maximum number of open file descriptors (most systems do not
5140 allow this value to be set).
5143 The pipe buffer size.
5146 The maximum number of bytes in @sc{posix} message queues.
5149 The maximum real-time scheduling priority.
5152 The maximum stack size.
5155 The maximum amount of cpu time in seconds.
5158 The maximum number of processes available to a single user.
5161 The maximum amount of virtual memory available to the shell, and, on
5162 some systems, to its children.
5165 The maximum number of file locks.
5168 The maximum number of pseudoterminals.
5171 The maximum time a real-time process can run before blocking, in microseconds.
5174 The maximum number of threads.
5177 If @var{limit} is given, and the @option{-a} option is not used,
5178 @var{limit} is the new value of the specified resource.
5179 The special @var{limit} values @code{hard}, @code{soft}, and
5180 @code{unlimited} stand for the current hard limit, the current soft limit,
5181 and no limit, respectively.
5182 A hard limit cannot be increased by a non-root user once it is set;
5183 a soft limit may be increased up to the value of the hard limit.
5184 Otherwise, the current value of the soft limit for the specified resource
5185 is printed, unless the @option{-H} option is supplied.
5187 resource is specified, the limit name and unit, if appropriate,
5188 are printed before the value.
5189 When setting new limits, if neither @option{-H} nor @option{-S} is supplied,
5190 both the hard and soft limits are set.
5191 If no option is given, then @option{-f} is assumed. Values are in 1024-byte
5192 increments, except for
5193 @option{-t}, which is in seconds;
5194 @option{-R}, which is in microseconds;
5195 @option{-p}, which is in units of 512-byte blocks;
5200 @option{-n} and @option{-u}, which are unscaled values;
5201 and, when in @sc{posix} Mode (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}),
5202 @option{-c} and @option{-f}, which are in 512-byte increments.
5204 The return status is zero unless an invalid option or argument is supplied,
5205 or an error occurs while setting a new limit.
5210 unalias [-a] [@var{name} @dots{} ]
5213 Remove each @var{name} from the list of aliases. If @option{-a} is
5214 supplied, all aliases are removed.
5215 Aliases are described in @ref{Aliases}.
5218 @node Modifying Shell Behavior
5219 @section Modifying Shell Behavior
5222 * The Set Builtin:: Change the values of shell attributes and
5223 positional parameters.
5224 * The Shopt Builtin:: Modify shell optional behavior.
5227 @node The Set Builtin
5228 @subsection The Set Builtin
5230 This builtin is so complicated that it deserves its own section. @code{set}
5231 allows you to change the values of shell options and set the positional
5232 parameters, or to display the names and values of shell variables.
5238 set [-abefhkmnptuvxBCEHPT] [-o @var{option-name}] [--] [-] [@var{argument} @dots{}]
5239 set [+abefhkmnptuvxBCEHPT] [+o @var{option-name}] [--] [-] [@var{argument} @dots{}]
5242 If no options or arguments are supplied, @code{set} displays the names
5243 and values of all shell variables and functions, sorted according to the
5244 current locale, in a format that may be reused as input
5245 for setting or resetting the currently-set variables.
5246 Read-only variables cannot be reset.
5247 In @sc{posix} mode, only shell variables are listed.
5249 When options are supplied, they set or unset shell attributes.
5250 Options, if specified, have the following meanings:
5254 Each variable or function that is created or modified is given the
5255 export attribute and marked for export to the environment of
5256 subsequent commands.
5259 Cause the status of terminated background jobs to be reported
5260 immediately, rather than before printing the next primary prompt.
5264 a pipeline (@pxref{Pipelines}), which may consist of a single simple command
5265 (@pxref{Simple Commands}),
5266 a list (@pxref{Lists}),
5267 or a compound command (@pxref{Compound Commands})
5268 returns a non-zero status.
5269 The shell does not exit if the command that fails is part of the
5270 command list immediately following a @code{while} or @code{until} keyword,
5271 part of the test in an @code{if} statement,
5272 part of any command executed in a @code{&&} or @code{||} list except
5273 the command following the final @code{&&} or @code{||},
5274 any command in a pipeline but the last,
5275 or if the command's return status is being inverted with @code{!}.
5276 If a compound command other than a subshell
5277 returns a non-zero status because a command failed
5278 while @option{-e} was being ignored, the shell does not exit.
5279 A trap on @code{ERR}, if set, is executed before the shell exits.
5281 This option applies to the shell environment and each subshell environment
5282 separately (@pxref{Command Execution Environment}), and may cause
5283 subshells to exit before executing all the commands in the subshell.
5285 If a compound command or shell function executes in a context where
5286 @option{-e} is being ignored,
5287 none of the commands executed within the compound command or function body
5288 will be affected by the @option{-e} setting, even if @option{-e} is set
5289 and a command returns a failure status.
5290 If a compound command or shell function sets @option{-e} while executing in
5291 a context where @option{-e} is ignored, that setting will not have any
5292 effect until the compound command or the command containing the function
5296 Disable filename expansion (globbing).
5299 Locate and remember (hash) commands as they are looked up for execution.
5300 This option is enabled by default.
5303 All arguments in the form of assignment statements are placed
5304 in the environment for a command, not just those that precede
5308 Job control is enabled (@pxref{Job Control}).
5309 All processes run in a separate process group.
5310 When a background job completes, the shell prints a line
5311 containing its exit status.
5314 Read commands but do not execute them.
5315 This may be used to check a script for syntax errors.
5316 This option is ignored by interactive shells.
5318 @item -o @var{option-name}
5320 Set the option corresponding to @var{option-name}:
5330 Use an @code{emacs}-style line editing interface (@pxref{Command Line Editing}).
5331 This also affects the editing interface used for @code{read -e}.
5349 Enable command history, as described in @ref{Bash History Facilities}.
5350 This option is on by default in interactive shells.
5353 An interactive shell will not exit upon reading EOF.
5386 If set, the return value of a pipeline is the value of the last
5387 (rightmost) command to exit with a non-zero status, or zero if all
5388 commands in the pipeline exit successfully.
5389 This option is disabled by default.
5392 Change the behavior of Bash where the default operation differs
5393 from the @sc{posix} standard to match the standard
5394 (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}).
5395 This is intended to make Bash behave as a strict superset of that
5405 Use a @code{vi}-style line editing interface.
5406 This also affects the editing interface used for @code{read -e}.
5413 Turn on privileged mode.
5414 In this mode, the @env{$BASH_ENV} and @env{$ENV} files are not
5415 processed, shell functions are not inherited from the environment,
5416 and the @env{SHELLOPTS}, @env{BASHOPTS}, @env{CDPATH} and @env{GLOBIGNORE}
5417 variables, if they appear in the environment, are ignored.
5418 If the shell is started with the effective user (group) id not equal to the
5419 real user (group) id, and the @option{-p} option is not supplied, these actions
5420 are taken and the effective user id is set to the real user id.
5421 If the @option{-p} option is supplied at startup, the effective user id is
5423 Turning this option off causes the effective user
5424 and group ids to be set to the real user and group ids.
5427 Enable restricted shell mode.
5428 This option cannot be unset once it has been set.
5431 Exit after reading and executing one command.
5434 Treat unset variables and parameters other than the special parameters
5435 @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
5436 or array variables subscripted with @samp{@@} or @samp{*},
5437 as an error when performing parameter expansion.
5438 An error message will be written to the standard error, and a non-interactive
5442 Print shell input lines as they are read.
5445 Print a trace of simple commands, @code{for} commands, @code{case}
5446 commands, @code{select} commands, and arithmetic @code{for} commands
5447 and their arguments or associated word lists after they are
5448 expanded and before they are executed. The value of the @env{PS4}
5449 variable is expanded and the resultant value is printed before
5450 the command and its expanded arguments.
5453 The shell will perform brace expansion (@pxref{Brace Expansion}).
5454 This option is on by default.
5457 Prevent output redirection using @samp{>}, @samp{>&}, and @samp{<>}
5458 from overwriting existing files.
5461 If set, any trap on @code{ERR} is inherited by shell functions, command
5462 substitutions, and commands executed in a subshell environment.
5463 The @code{ERR} trap is normally not inherited in such cases.
5466 Enable @samp{!} style history substitution (@pxref{History Interaction}).
5467 This option is on by default for interactive shells.
5470 If set, do not resolve symbolic links when performing commands such as
5471 @code{cd} which change the current directory. The physical directory
5472 is used instead. By default, Bash follows
5473 the logical chain of directories when performing commands
5474 which change the current directory.
5476 For example, if @file{/usr/sys} is a symbolic link to @file{/usr/local/sys}
5479 $ cd /usr/sys; echo $PWD
5486 If @code{set -P} is on, then:
5488 $ cd /usr/sys; echo $PWD
5495 If set, any trap on @code{DEBUG} and @code{RETURN} are inherited by
5496 shell functions, command substitutions, and commands executed
5497 in a subshell environment.
5498 The @code{DEBUG} and @code{RETURN} traps are normally not inherited
5502 If no arguments follow this option, then the positional parameters are
5503 unset. Otherwise, the positional parameters are set to the
5504 @var{arguments}, even if some of them begin with a @samp{-}.
5507 Signal the end of options, cause all remaining @var{arguments}
5508 to be assigned to the positional parameters. The @option{-x}
5509 and @option{-v} options are turned off.
5510 If there are no arguments, the positional parameters remain unchanged.
5513 Using @samp{+} rather than @samp{-} causes these options to be
5514 turned off. The options can also be used upon invocation of the
5515 shell. The current set of options may be found in @code{$-}.
5517 The remaining N @var{arguments} are positional parameters and are
5518 assigned, in order, to @code{$1}, @code{$2}, @dots{} @code{$N}.
5519 The special parameter @code{#} is set to N.
5521 The return status is always zero unless an invalid option is supplied.
5524 @node The Shopt Builtin
5525 @subsection The Shopt Builtin
5527 This builtin allows you to change additional shell optional behavior.
5534 shopt [-pqsu] [-o] [@var{optname} @dots{}]
5537 Toggle the values of settings controlling optional shell behavior.
5538 The settings can be either those listed below, or, if the
5539 @option{-o} option is used, those available with the @option{-o}
5540 option to the @code{set} builtin command (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
5541 With no options, or with the @option{-p} option, a list of all settable
5542 options is displayed, with an indication of whether or not each is set;
5543 if @var{optname}s are supplied, the output is restricted to those options.
5544 The @option{-p} option causes output to be displayed in a form that
5545 may be reused as input.
5546 Other options have the following meanings:
5550 Enable (set) each @var{optname}.
5553 Disable (unset) each @var{optname}.
5556 Suppresses normal output; the return status
5557 indicates whether the @var{optname} is set or unset.
5558 If multiple @var{optname} arguments are given with @option{-q},
5559 the return status is zero if all @var{optname}s are enabled;
5563 Restricts the values of
5564 @var{optname} to be those defined for the @option{-o} option to the
5565 @code{set} builtin (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
5568 If either @option{-s} or @option{-u}
5569 is used with no @var{optname} arguments, @code{shopt} shows only
5570 those options which are set or unset, respectively.
5572 Unless otherwise noted, the @code{shopt} options are disabled (off)
5575 The return status when listing options is zero if all @var{optname}s
5576 are enabled, non-zero otherwise. When setting or unsetting options,
5577 the return status is zero unless an @var{optname} is not a valid shell
5580 The list of @code{shopt} options is:
5583 @item assoc_expand_once
5584 If set, the shell suppresses multiple evaluation of associative array
5585 subscripts during arithmetic expression evaluation, while executing
5586 builtins that can perform variable assignments,
5587 and while executing builtins that perform array dereferencing.
5590 If set, a command name that is the name of a directory is executed as if
5591 it were the argument to the @code{cd} command.
5592 This option is only used by interactive shells.
5595 If this is set, an argument to the @code{cd} builtin command that
5596 is not a directory is assumed to be the name of a variable whose
5597 value is the directory to change to.
5600 If set, minor errors in the spelling of a directory component in a
5601 @code{cd} command will be corrected.
5602 The errors checked for are transposed characters,
5603 a missing character, and a character too many.
5604 If a correction is found, the corrected path is printed,
5605 and the command proceeds.
5606 This option is only used by interactive shells.
5609 If this is set, Bash checks that a command found in the hash
5610 table exists before trying to execute it. If a hashed command no
5611 longer exists, a normal path search is performed.
5614 If set, Bash lists the status of any stopped and running jobs before
5615 exiting an interactive shell. If any jobs are running, this causes
5616 the exit to be deferred until a second exit is attempted without an
5617 intervening command (@pxref{Job Control}).
5618 The shell always postpones exiting if any jobs are stopped.
5621 If set, Bash checks the window size after each external (non-builtin)
5622 command and, if necessary, updates the values of
5623 @env{LINES} and @env{COLUMNS}.
5624 This option is enabled by default.
5628 attempts to save all lines of a multiple-line
5629 command in the same history entry. This allows
5630 easy re-editing of multi-line commands.
5631 This option is enabled by default, but only has an effect if command
5632 history is enabled (@pxref{Bash History Facilities}).
5641 These control aspects of the shell's compatibility mode
5642 (@pxref{Shell Compatibility Mode}).
5644 @item complete_fullquote
5646 quotes all shell metacharacters in filenames and directory names when
5647 performing completion.
5649 removes metacharacters such as the dollar sign from the set of
5650 characters that will be quoted in completed filenames
5651 when these metacharacters appear in shell variable references in words to be
5653 This means that dollar signs in variable names that expand to directories
5655 however, any dollar signs appearing in filenames will not be quoted, either.
5656 This is active only when bash is using backslashes to quote completed
5658 This variable is set by default, which is the default Bash behavior in
5659 versions through 4.2.
5663 replaces directory names with the results of word expansion when performing
5664 filename completion. This changes the contents of the Readline editing
5666 If not set, Bash attempts to preserve what the user typed.
5670 attempts spelling correction on directory names during word completion
5671 if the directory name initially supplied does not exist.
5674 If set, Bash includes filenames beginning with a `.' in
5675 the results of filename expansion.
5676 The filenames @samp{.} and @samp{..} must always be matched explicitly,
5677 even if @code{dotglob} is set.
5680 If this is set, a non-interactive shell will not exit if
5681 it cannot execute the file specified as an argument to the @code{exec}
5682 builtin command. An interactive shell does not exit if @code{exec}
5685 @item expand_aliases
5686 If set, aliases are expanded as described below under Aliases,
5688 This option is enabled by default for interactive shells.
5691 If set at shell invocation,
5692 or in a shell startup file,
5693 arrange to execute the debugger profile
5694 before the shell starts, identical to the @option{--debugger} option.
5695 If set after invocation, behavior intended for use by debuggers is enabled:
5699 The @option{-F} option to the @code{declare} builtin (@pxref{Bash Builtins})
5700 displays the source file name and line number corresponding to each function
5701 name supplied as an argument.
5704 If the command run by the @code{DEBUG} trap returns a non-zero value, the
5705 next command is skipped and not executed.
5708 If the command run by the @code{DEBUG} trap returns a value of 2, and the
5709 shell is executing in a subroutine (a shell function or a shell script
5710 executed by the @code{.} or @code{source} builtins), the shell simulates
5711 a call to @code{return}.
5714 @code{BASH_ARGC} and @code{BASH_ARGV} are updated as described in their
5715 descriptions (@pxref{Bash Variables}).
5718 Function tracing is enabled: command substitution, shell functions, and
5719 subshells invoked with @code{( @var{command} )} inherit the
5720 @code{DEBUG} and @code{RETURN} traps.
5723 Error tracing is enabled: command substitution, shell functions, and
5724 subshells invoked with @code{( @var{command} )} inherit the
5729 If set, the extended pattern matching features described above
5730 (@pxref{Pattern Matching}) are enabled.
5733 If set, @code{$'@var{string}'} and @code{$"@var{string}"} quoting is
5734 performed within @code{$@{@var{parameter}@}} expansions
5735 enclosed in double quotes. This option is enabled by default.
5738 If set, patterns which fail to match filenames during filename expansion
5739 result in an expansion error.
5742 If set, the suffixes specified by the @env{FIGNORE} shell variable
5743 cause words to be ignored when performing word completion even if
5744 the ignored words are the only possible completions.
5745 @xref{Bash Variables}, for a description of @env{FIGNORE}.
5746 This option is enabled by default.
5748 @item globasciiranges
5749 If set, range expressions used in pattern matching bracket expressions
5750 (@pxref{Pattern Matching})
5751 behave as if in the traditional C locale when performing
5752 comparisons. That is, the current locale's collating sequence
5753 is not taken into account, so
5754 @samp{b} will not collate between @samp{A} and @samp{B},
5755 and upper-case and lower-case ASCII characters will collate together.
5758 If set, filename expansion will never match the filenames
5759 @samp{.} and @samp{..},
5760 even if the pattern begins with a @samp{.}.
5761 This option is enabled by default.
5764 If set, the pattern @samp{**} used in a filename expansion context will
5765 match all files and zero or more directories and subdirectories.
5766 If the pattern is followed by a @samp{/}, only directories and
5767 subdirectories match.
5770 If set, shell error messages are written in the standard @sc{gnu} error
5774 If set, the history list is appended to the file named by the value
5775 of the @env{HISTFILE}
5776 variable when the shell exits, rather than overwriting the file.
5779 If set, and Readline
5780 is being used, a user is given the opportunity to re-edit a
5781 failed history substitution.
5784 If set, and Readline
5785 is being used, the results of history substitution are not immediately
5786 passed to the shell parser. Instead, the resulting line is loaded into
5787 the Readline editing buffer, allowing further modification.
5790 If set, and Readline is being used, Bash will attempt to perform
5791 hostname completion when a word containing a @samp{@@} is being
5792 completed (@pxref{Commands For Completion}). This option is enabled
5796 If set, Bash will send @code{SIGHUP} to all jobs when an interactive
5797 login shell exits (@pxref{Signals}).
5799 @item inherit_errexit
5800 If set, command substitution inherits the value of the @code{errexit} option,
5801 instead of unsetting it in the subshell environment.
5802 This option is enabled when @sc{posix} mode is enabled.
5804 @item interactive_comments
5805 Allow a word beginning with @samp{#}
5806 to cause that word and all remaining characters on that
5807 line to be ignored in an interactive shell.
5808 This option is enabled by default.
5811 If set, and job control is not active, the shell runs the last command of
5812 a pipeline not executed in the background in the current shell environment.
5815 If enabled, and the @code{cmdhist}
5816 option is enabled, multi-line commands are saved to the history with
5817 embedded newlines rather than using semicolon separators where possible.
5819 @item localvar_inherit
5820 If set, local variables inherit the value and attributes of a variable of
5821 the same name that exists at a previous scope before any new value is
5822 assigned. The @code{nameref} attribute is not inherited.
5824 @item localvar_unset
5825 If set, calling @code{unset} on local variables in previous function scopes
5826 marks them so subsequent lookups find them unset until that function
5827 returns. This is identical to the behavior of unsetting local variables
5828 at the current function scope.
5831 The shell sets this option if it is started as a login shell
5832 (@pxref{Invoking Bash}).
5833 The value may not be changed.
5836 If set, and a file that Bash is checking for mail has been
5837 accessed since the last time it was checked, the message
5838 @code{"The mail in @var{mailfile} has been read"} is displayed.
5840 @item no_empty_cmd_completion
5841 If set, and Readline is being used, Bash will not attempt to search
5842 the @env{PATH} for possible completions when completion is attempted
5846 If set, Bash matches filenames in a case-insensitive fashion when
5847 performing filename expansion.
5850 If set, Bash matches patterns in a case-insensitive fashion when
5851 performing matching while executing @code{case} or @code{[[}
5852 conditional commands (@pxref{Conditional Constructs},
5853 when performing pattern substitution word expansions,
5854 or when filtering possible completions as part of programmable completion.
5856 @item noexpand_translation
5858 encloses the translated results of $"..." quoting in single quotes
5859 instead of double quotes.
5860 If the string is not translated, this has no effect.
5863 If set, Bash allows filename patterns which match no
5864 files to expand to a null string, rather than themselves.
5866 @item patsub_replacement
5868 expands occurrences of @samp{&} in the replacement string of pattern
5869 substitution to the text matched by the pattern, as described
5870 above (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
5871 This option is enabled by default.
5874 If set, the programmable completion facilities
5875 (@pxref{Programmable Completion}) are enabled.
5876 This option is enabled by default.
5878 @item progcomp_alias
5879 If set, and programmable completion is enabled, Bash treats a command
5880 name that doesn't have any completions as a possible alias and attempts
5881 alias expansion. If it has an alias, Bash attempts programmable
5882 completion using the command word resulting from the expanded alias.
5885 If set, prompt strings undergo
5886 parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic
5887 expansion, and quote removal after being expanded
5888 as described below (@pxref{Controlling the Prompt}).
5889 This option is enabled by default.
5891 @item restricted_shell
5892 The shell sets this option if it is started in restricted mode
5893 (@pxref{The Restricted Shell}).
5894 The value may not be changed.
5895 This is not reset when the startup files are executed, allowing
5896 the startup files to discover whether or not a shell is restricted.
5899 If this is set, the @code{shift}
5900 builtin prints an error message when the shift count exceeds the
5901 number of positional parameters.
5904 If set, the @code{.} (@code{source}) builtin uses the value of @env{PATH}
5905 to find the directory containing the file supplied as an argument.
5906 This option is enabled by default.
5908 @item varredir_close
5909 If set, the shell automatically closes file descriptors assigned using the
5910 @code{@{varname@}} redirection syntax (@pxref{Redirections}) instead of
5911 leaving them open when the command completes.
5914 If set, the @code{echo} builtin expands backslash-escape sequences
5920 @node Special Builtins
5921 @section Special Builtins
5922 @cindex special builtin
5924 For historical reasons, the @sc{posix} standard has classified
5925 several builtin commands as @emph{special}.
5926 When Bash is executing in @sc{posix} mode, the special builtins
5927 differ from other builtin commands in three respects:
5931 Special builtins are found before shell functions during command lookup.
5934 If a special builtin returns an error status, a non-interactive shell exits.
5937 Assignment statements preceding the command stay in effect in the shell
5938 environment after the command completes.
5941 When Bash is not executing in @sc{posix} mode, these builtins behave no
5942 differently than the rest of the Bash builtin commands.
5943 The Bash @sc{posix} mode is described in @ref{Bash POSIX Mode}.
5945 These are the @sc{posix} special builtins:
5947 @w{break : . continue eval exec exit export readonly return set}
5948 @w{shift trap unset}
5951 @node Shell Variables
5952 @chapter Shell Variables
5955 * Bourne Shell Variables:: Variables which Bash uses in the same way
5956 as the Bourne Shell.
5957 * Bash Variables:: List of variables that exist in Bash.
5960 This chapter describes the shell variables that Bash uses.
5961 Bash automatically assigns default values to a number of variables.
5963 @node Bourne Shell Variables
5964 @section Bourne Shell Variables
5966 Bash uses certain shell variables in the same way as the Bourne shell.
5967 In some cases, Bash assigns a default value to the variable.
5972 A colon-separated list of directories used as a search path for
5973 the @code{cd} builtin command.
5976 The current user's home directory; the default for the @code{cd} builtin
5978 The value of this variable is also used by tilde expansion
5979 (@pxref{Tilde Expansion}).
5982 A list of characters that separate fields; used when the shell splits
5983 words as part of expansion.
5986 If this parameter is set to a filename or directory name
5987 and the @env{MAILPATH} variable
5988 is not set, Bash informs the user of the arrival of mail in
5989 the specified file or Maildir-format directory.
5992 A colon-separated list of filenames which the shell periodically checks
5994 Each list entry can specify the message that is printed when new mail
5995 arrives in the mail file by separating the filename from the message with
5997 When used in the text of the message, @code{$_} expands to the name of
5998 the current mail file.
6001 The value of the last option argument processed by the @code{getopts} builtin.
6004 The index of the last option argument processed by the @code{getopts} builtin.
6007 A colon-separated list of directories in which the shell looks for
6009 A zero-length (null) directory name in the value of @code{PATH} indicates the
6011 A null directory name may appear as two adjacent colons, or as an initial
6015 The primary prompt string. The default value is @samp{\s-\v\$ }.
6016 @xref{Controlling the Prompt}, for the complete list of escape
6017 sequences that are expanded before @env{PS1} is displayed.
6020 The secondary prompt string. The default value is @samp{> }.
6021 @env{PS2} is expanded in the same way as @env{PS1} before being
6026 @node Bash Variables
6027 @section Bash Variables
6029 These variables are set or used by Bash, but other shells
6030 do not normally treat them specially.
6032 A few variables used by Bash are described in different chapters:
6033 variables for controlling the job control facilities
6034 (@pxref{Job Control Variables}).
6040 ($_, an underscore.)
6041 At shell startup, set to the pathname used to invoke the
6042 shell or shell script being executed as passed in the environment
6044 Subsequently, expands to the last argument to the previous simple
6045 command executed in the foreground, after expansion.
6046 Also set to the full pathname used to invoke each command executed
6047 and placed in the environment exported to that command.
6048 When checking mail, this parameter holds the name of the mail file.
6051 The full pathname used to execute the current instance of Bash.
6054 A colon-separated list of enabled shell options. Each word in
6055 the list is a valid argument for the @option{-s} option to the
6056 @code{shopt} builtin command (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}).
6057 The options appearing in @env{BASHOPTS} are those reported
6058 as @samp{on} by @samp{shopt}.
6059 If this variable is in the environment when Bash
6060 starts up, each shell option in the list will be enabled before
6061 reading any startup files. This variable is readonly.
6064 Expands to the process ID of the current Bash process.
6065 This differs from @code{$$} under certain circumstances, such as subshells
6066 that do not require Bash to be re-initialized.
6067 Assignments to @env{BASHPID} have no effect.
6069 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
6073 An associative array variable whose members correspond to the internal
6074 list of aliases as maintained by the @code{alias} builtin.
6075 (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
6076 Elements added to this array appear in the alias list; however,
6077 unsetting array elements currently does not cause aliases to be removed
6078 from the alias list.
6079 If @env{BASH_ALIASES}
6080 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
6084 An array variable whose values are the number of parameters in each
6085 frame of the current bash execution call stack. The number of
6086 parameters to the current subroutine (shell function or script executed
6087 with @code{.} or @code{source}) is at the top of the stack. When a
6088 subroutine is executed, the number of parameters passed is pushed onto
6090 The shell sets @code{BASH_ARGC} only when in extended debugging mode
6091 (see @ref{The Shopt Builtin}
6092 for a description of the @code{extdebug} option to the @code{shopt}
6094 Setting @code{extdebug} after the shell has started to execute a script,
6095 or referencing this variable when @code{extdebug} is not set,
6096 may result in inconsistent values.
6099 An array variable containing all of the parameters in the current bash
6100 execution call stack. The final parameter of the last subroutine call
6101 is at the top of the stack; the first parameter of the initial call is
6102 at the bottom. When a subroutine is executed, the parameters supplied
6103 are pushed onto @code{BASH_ARGV}.
6104 The shell sets @code{BASH_ARGV} only when in extended debugging mode
6105 (see @ref{The Shopt Builtin}
6106 for a description of the @code{extdebug} option to the @code{shopt}
6108 Setting @code{extdebug} after the shell has started to execute a script,
6109 or referencing this variable when @code{extdebug} is not set,
6110 may result in inconsistent values.
6113 When referenced, this variable expands to the name of the shell or shell
6114 script (identical to @code{$0}; @xref{Special Parameters},
6115 for the description of special parameter 0).
6116 Assignment to @code{BASH_ARGV0}
6117 causes the value assigned to also be assigned to @code{$0}.
6119 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
6123 An associative array variable whose members correspond to the internal
6124 hash table of commands as maintained by the @code{hash} builtin
6125 (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
6126 Elements added to this array appear in the hash table; however,
6127 unsetting array elements currently does not cause command names to be removed
6128 from the hash table.
6130 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
6134 The command currently being executed or about to be executed, unless the
6135 shell is executing a command as the result of a trap,
6136 in which case it is the command executing at the time of the trap.
6137 If @env{BASH_COMMAND}
6138 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
6142 The value is used to set the shell's compatibility level.
6143 @xref{Shell Compatibility Mode}, for a description of the various
6144 compatibility levels and their effects.
6145 The value may be a decimal number (e.g., 4.2) or an integer (e.g., 42)
6146 corresponding to the desired compatibility level.
6147 If @env{BASH_COMPAT} is unset or set to the empty string, the compatibility
6148 level is set to the default for the current version.
6149 If @env{BASH_COMPAT} is set to a value that is not one of the valid
6150 compatibility levels, the shell prints an error message and sets the
6151 compatibility level to the default for the current version.
6152 The valid values correspond to the compatibility levels
6153 described below (@pxref{Shell Compatibility Mode}).
6154 For example, 4.2 and 42 are valid values that correspond
6155 to the @code{compat42} @code{shopt} option
6156 and set the compatibility level to 42.
6157 The current version is also a valid value.
6160 If this variable is set when Bash is invoked to execute a shell
6161 script, its value is expanded and used as the name of a startup file
6162 to read before executing the script. @xref{Bash Startup Files}.
6164 @item BASH_EXECUTION_STRING
6165 The command argument to the @option{-c} invocation option.
6168 An array variable whose members are the line numbers in source files
6169 where each corresponding member of @env{FUNCNAME} was invoked.
6170 @code{$@{BASH_LINENO[$i]@}} is the line number in the source file
6171 (@code{$@{BASH_SOURCE[$i+1]@}}) where
6172 @code{$@{FUNCNAME[$i]@}} was called (or @code{$@{BASH_LINENO[$i-1]@}} if
6173 referenced within another shell function).
6174 Use @code{LINENO} to obtain the current line number.
6176 @item BASH_LOADABLES_PATH
6177 A colon-separated list of directories in which the shell looks for
6178 dynamically loadable builtins specified by the
6179 @code{enable} command.
6182 An array variable whose members are assigned by the @samp{=~} binary
6183 operator to the @code{[[} conditional command
6184 (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}).
6185 The element with index 0 is the portion of the string
6186 matching the entire regular expression.
6187 The element with index @var{n} is the portion of the
6188 string matching the @var{n}th parenthesized subexpression.
6191 An array variable whose members are the source filenames where the
6192 corresponding shell function names in the @code{FUNCNAME} array
6193 variable are defined.
6194 The shell function @code{$@{FUNCNAME[$i]@}} is defined in the file
6195 @code{$@{BASH_SOURCE[$i]@}} and called from @code{$@{BASH_SOURCE[$i+1]@}}
6198 Incremented by one within each subshell or subshell environment when
6199 the shell begins executing in that environment.
6200 The initial value is 0.
6201 If @env{BASH_SUBSHELL}
6202 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
6206 A readonly array variable (@pxref{Arrays})
6207 whose members hold version information for this instance of Bash.
6208 The values assigned to the array members are as follows:
6212 @item BASH_VERSINFO[0]
6213 The major version number (the @dfn{release}).
6215 @item BASH_VERSINFO[1]
6216 The minor version number (the @dfn{version}).
6218 @item BASH_VERSINFO[2]
6221 @item BASH_VERSINFO[3]
6224 @item BASH_VERSINFO[4]
6225 The release status (e.g., @code{beta1}).
6227 @item BASH_VERSINFO[5]
6228 The value of @env{MACHTYPE}.
6232 The version number of the current instance of Bash.
6235 If set to an integer corresponding to a valid file descriptor, Bash
6236 will write the trace output generated when @samp{set -x}
6237 is enabled to that file descriptor.
6238 This allows tracing output to be separated from diagnostic and error
6240 The file descriptor is closed when @code{BASH_XTRACEFD} is unset or assigned
6242 Unsetting @code{BASH_XTRACEFD} or assigning it the empty string causes the
6243 trace output to be sent to the standard error.
6244 Note that setting @code{BASH_XTRACEFD} to 2 (the standard error file
6245 descriptor) and then unsetting it will result in the standard error
6249 Set the number of exited child status values for the shell to remember.
6250 Bash will not allow this value to be decreased below a @sc{posix}-mandated
6251 minimum, and there is a maximum value (currently 8192) that this may
6253 The minimum value is system-dependent.
6256 Used by the @code{select} command to determine the terminal width
6257 when printing selection lists.
6258 Automatically set if the @code{checkwinsize} option is enabled
6259 (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}), or in an interactive shell upon receipt of a
6263 An index into @env{$@{COMP_WORDS@}} of the word containing the current
6265 This variable is available only in shell functions invoked by the
6266 programmable completion facilities (@pxref{Programmable Completion}).
6269 The current command line.
6270 This variable is available only in shell functions and external
6271 commands invoked by the
6272 programmable completion facilities (@pxref{Programmable Completion}).
6275 The index of the current cursor position relative to the beginning of
6276 the current command.
6277 If the current cursor position is at the end of the current command,
6278 the value of this variable is equal to @code{$@{#COMP_LINE@}}.
6279 This variable is available only in shell functions and external
6280 commands invoked by the
6281 programmable completion facilities (@pxref{Programmable Completion}).
6284 Set to an integer value corresponding to the type of completion attempted
6285 that caused a completion function to be called:
6286 @key{TAB}, for normal completion,
6287 @samp{?}, for listing completions after successive tabs,
6288 @samp{!}, for listing alternatives on partial word completion,
6289 @samp{@@}, to list completions if the word is not unmodified,
6291 @samp{%}, for menu completion.
6292 This variable is available only in shell functions and external
6293 commands invoked by the
6294 programmable completion facilities (@pxref{Programmable Completion}).
6297 The key (or final key of a key sequence) used to invoke the current
6298 completion function.
6300 @item COMP_WORDBREAKS
6301 The set of characters that the Readline library treats as word
6302 separators when performing word completion.
6303 If @env{COMP_WORDBREAKS}
6304 is unset, it loses its special properties,
6305 even if it is subsequently reset.
6308 An array variable consisting of the individual
6309 words in the current command line.
6310 The line is split into words as Readline would split it, using
6311 @code{COMP_WORDBREAKS} as described above.
6312 This variable is available only in shell functions invoked by the
6313 programmable completion facilities (@pxref{Programmable Completion}).
6316 An array variable from which Bash reads the possible completions
6317 generated by a shell function invoked by the programmable completion
6318 facility (@pxref{Programmable Completion}).
6319 Each array element contains one possible completion.
6322 An array variable created to hold the file descriptors
6323 for output from and input to an unnamed coprocess (@pxref{Coprocesses}).
6326 An array variable containing the current contents of the directory stack.
6327 Directories appear in the stack in the order they are displayed by the
6328 @code{dirs} builtin.
6329 Assigning to members of this array variable may be used to modify
6330 directories already in the stack, but the @code{pushd} and @code{popd}
6331 builtins must be used to add and remove directories.
6332 Assignment to this variable will not change the current directory.
6334 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if
6335 it is subsequently reset.
6338 If Bash finds this variable in the environment when the shell
6339 starts with value @samp{t}, it assumes that the shell is running in an
6340 Emacs shell buffer and disables line editing.
6343 Expanded and executed similarly to @code{BASH_ENV}
6344 (@pxref{Bash Startup Files})
6345 when an interactive shell is invoked in
6346 @sc{posix} Mode (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}).
6349 Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to the number of seconds
6350 since the Unix Epoch as a floating point value with micro-second granularity
6351 (see the documentation for the C library function @code{time} for the
6352 definition of Epoch).
6353 Assignments to @env{EPOCHREALTIME} are ignored.
6354 If @env{EPOCHREALTIME}
6355 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if
6356 it is subsequently reset.
6359 Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to the number of seconds
6360 since the Unix Epoch (see the documentation for the C library function
6361 @code{time} for the definition of Epoch).
6362 Assignments to @env{EPOCHSECONDS} are ignored.
6363 If @env{EPOCHSECONDS}
6364 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if
6365 it is subsequently reset.
6368 The numeric effective user id of the current user. This variable
6372 A colon-separated list of shell patterns (@pxref{Pattern Matching})
6373 defining the list of filenames to be ignored by command search using
6375 Files whose full pathnames match one of these patterns are not considered
6376 executable files for the purposes of completion and command execution
6377 via @code{PATH} lookup.
6378 This does not affect the behavior of the @code{[}, @code{test}, and @code{[[}
6380 Full pathnames in the command hash table are not subject to @code{EXECIGNORE}.
6381 Use this variable to ignore shared library files that have the executable
6382 bit set, but are not executable files.
6383 The pattern matching honors the setting of the @code{extglob} shell
6387 The editor used as a default by the @option{-e} option to the @code{fc}
6391 A colon-separated list of suffixes to ignore when performing
6392 filename completion.
6393 A filename whose suffix matches one of the entries in
6395 is excluded from the list of matched filenames. A sample
6396 value is @samp{.o:~}
6399 An array variable containing the names of all shell functions
6400 currently in the execution call stack.
6401 The element with index 0 is the name of any currently-executing
6403 The bottom-most element (the one with the highest index)
6405 This variable exists only when a shell function is executing.
6406 Assignments to @env{FUNCNAME} have no effect.
6408 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if
6409 it is subsequently reset.
6411 This variable can be used with @code{BASH_LINENO} and @code{BASH_SOURCE}.
6412 Each element of @code{FUNCNAME} has corresponding elements in
6413 @code{BASH_LINENO} and @code{BASH_SOURCE} to describe the call stack.
6414 For instance, @code{$@{FUNCNAME[$i]@}} was called from the file
6415 @code{$@{BASH_SOURCE[$i+1]@}} at line number @code{$@{BASH_LINENO[$i]@}}.
6416 The @code{caller} builtin displays the current call stack using this
6420 If set to a numeric value greater than 0, defines a maximum function
6421 nesting level. Function invocations that exceed this nesting level
6422 will cause the current command to abort.
6425 A colon-separated list of patterns defining the set of file names to
6426 be ignored by filename expansion.
6427 If a file name matched by a filename expansion pattern also matches one
6428 of the patterns in @env{GLOBIGNORE}, it is removed from the list
6430 The pattern matching honors the setting of the @code{extglob} shell
6434 An array variable containing the list of groups of which the current
6436 Assignments to @env{GROUPS} have no effect.
6438 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
6442 Up to three characters which control history expansion, quick
6443 substitution, and tokenization (@pxref{History Interaction}).
6444 The first character is the
6445 @dfn{history expansion} character, that is, the character which signifies the
6446 start of a history expansion, normally @samp{!}. The second character is the
6447 character which signifies `quick substitution' when seen as the first
6448 character on a line, normally @samp{^}. The optional third character is the
6449 character which indicates that the remainder of the line is a comment when
6450 found as the first character of a word, usually @samp{#}. The history
6451 comment character causes history substitution to be skipped for the
6452 remaining words on the line. It does not necessarily cause the shell
6453 parser to treat the rest of the line as a comment.
6456 The history number, or index in the history list, of the current
6458 Assignments to @env{HISTCMD} are ignored.
6460 is unset, it loses its special properties,
6461 even if it is subsequently reset.
6464 A colon-separated list of values controlling how commands are saved on
6466 If the list of values includes @samp{ignorespace}, lines which begin
6467 with a space character are not saved in the history list.
6468 A value of @samp{ignoredups} causes lines which match the previous
6469 history entry to not be saved.
6470 A value of @samp{ignoreboth} is shorthand for
6471 @samp{ignorespace} and @samp{ignoredups}.
6472 A value of @samp{erasedups} causes all previous lines matching the
6473 current line to be removed from the history list before that line
6475 Any value not in the above list is ignored.
6476 If @env{HISTCONTROL} is unset, or does not include a valid value,
6477 all lines read by the shell parser are saved on the history list,
6478 subject to the value of @env{HISTIGNORE}.
6479 The second and subsequent lines of a multi-line compound command are
6480 not tested, and are added to the history regardless of the value of
6484 The name of the file to which the command history is saved. The
6485 default value is @file{~/.bash_history}.
6488 The maximum number of lines contained in the history file.
6489 When this variable is assigned a value, the history file is truncated,
6490 if necessary, to contain no more than that number of lines
6491 by removing the oldest entries.
6492 The history file is also truncated to this size after
6493 writing it when a shell exits.
6494 If the value is 0, the history file is truncated to zero size.
6495 Non-numeric values and numeric values less than zero inhibit truncation.
6496 The shell sets the default value to the value of @env{HISTSIZE}
6497 after reading any startup files.
6500 A colon-separated list of patterns used to decide which command
6501 lines should be saved on the history list. Each pattern is
6502 anchored at the beginning of the line and must match the complete
6503 line (no implicit @samp{*} is appended). Each pattern is tested
6504 against the line after the checks specified by @env{HISTCONTROL}
6505 are applied. In addition to the normal shell pattern matching
6506 characters, @samp{&} matches the previous history line. @samp{&}
6507 may be escaped using a backslash; the backslash is removed
6508 before attempting a match.
6509 The second and subsequent lines of a multi-line compound command are
6510 not tested, and are added to the history regardless of the value of
6512 The pattern matching honors the setting of the @code{extglob} shell
6515 @env{HISTIGNORE} subsumes the function of @env{HISTCONTROL}. A
6516 pattern of @samp{&} is identical to @code{ignoredups}, and a
6517 pattern of @samp{[ ]*} is identical to @code{ignorespace}.
6518 Combining these two patterns, separating them with a colon,
6519 provides the functionality of @code{ignoreboth}.
6522 The maximum number of commands to remember on the history list.
6523 If the value is 0, commands are not saved in the history list.
6524 Numeric values less than zero result in every command being saved
6525 on the history list (there is no limit).
6526 The shell sets the default value to 500 after reading any startup files.
6528 @item HISTTIMEFORMAT
6529 If this variable is set and not null, its value is used as a format string
6530 for @code{strftime} to print the time stamp associated with each history
6531 entry displayed by the @code{history} builtin.
6532 If this variable is set, time stamps are written to the history file so
6533 they may be preserved across shell sessions.
6534 This uses the history comment character to distinguish timestamps from
6535 other history lines.
6538 Contains the name of a file in the same format as @file{/etc/hosts} that
6539 should be read when the shell needs to complete a hostname.
6540 The list of possible hostname completions may be changed while the shell
6542 the next time hostname completion is attempted after the
6543 value is changed, Bash adds the contents of the new file to the
6545 If @env{HOSTFILE} is set, but has no value, or does not name a readable file,
6546 Bash attempts to read
6547 @file{/etc/hosts} to obtain the list of possible hostname completions.
6548 When @env{HOSTFILE} is unset, the hostname list is cleared.
6551 The name of the current host.
6554 A string describing the machine Bash is running on.
6557 Controls the action of the shell on receipt of an @code{EOF} character
6558 as the sole input. If set, the value denotes the number
6559 of consecutive @code{EOF} characters that can be read as the
6560 first character on an input line
6561 before the shell will exit. If the variable exists but does not
6562 have a numeric value, or has no value, then the default is 10.
6563 If the variable does not exist, then @code{EOF} signifies the end of
6564 input to the shell. This is only in effect for interactive shells.
6567 The name of the Readline initialization file, overriding the default
6568 of @file{~/.inputrc}.
6571 If Bash finds this variable in the environment when the shell
6572 starts, it assumes that the shell is running in an Emacs shell buffer
6573 and may disable line editing depending on the value of @env{TERM}.
6576 Used to determine the locale category for any category not specifically
6577 selected with a variable starting with @code{LC_}.
6580 This variable overrides the value of @env{LANG} and any other
6581 @code{LC_} variable specifying a locale category.
6584 This variable determines the collation order used when sorting the
6585 results of filename expansion, and
6586 determines the behavior of range expressions, equivalence classes,
6587 and collating sequences within filename expansion and pattern matching
6588 (@pxref{Filename Expansion}).
6591 This variable determines the interpretation of characters and the
6592 behavior of character classes within filename expansion and pattern
6593 matching (@pxref{Filename Expansion}).
6596 This variable determines the locale used to translate double-quoted
6597 strings preceded by a @samp{$} (@pxref{Locale Translation}).
6600 This variable determines the locale category used for number formatting.
6603 This variable determines the locale category used for data and time
6607 The line number in the script or shell function currently executing.
6609 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
6613 Used by the @code{select} command to determine the column length
6614 for printing selection lists.
6615 Automatically set if the @code{checkwinsize} option is enabled
6616 (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}), or in an interactive shell upon receipt of a
6620 A string that fully describes the system type on which Bash
6621 is executing, in the standard @sc{gnu} @var{cpu-company-system} format.
6624 How often (in seconds) that the shell should check for mail in the
6625 files specified in the @env{MAILPATH} or @env{MAIL} variables.
6626 The default is 60 seconds. When it is time to check
6627 for mail, the shell does so before displaying the primary prompt.
6628 If this variable is unset, or set to a value that is not a number
6629 greater than or equal to zero, the shell disables mail checking.
6632 An array variable created to hold the text read by the
6633 @code{mapfile} builtin when no variable name is supplied.
6636 The previous working directory as set by the @code{cd} builtin.
6639 If set to the value 1, Bash displays error messages
6640 generated by the @code{getopts} builtin command.
6643 A string describing the operating system Bash is running on.
6646 An array variable (@pxref{Arrays})
6647 containing a list of exit status values from the processes
6648 in the most-recently-executed foreground pipeline (which may
6649 contain only a single command).
6651 @item POSIXLY_CORRECT
6652 If this variable is in the environment when Bash starts, the shell
6653 enters @sc{posix} mode (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}) before reading the
6654 startup files, as if the @option{--posix} invocation option had been supplied.
6655 If it is set while the shell is running, Bash enables @sc{posix} mode,
6662 When the shell enters @sc{posix} mode, it sets this variable if it was
6666 The process @sc{id} of the shell's parent process. This variable
6669 @item PROMPT_COMMAND
6670 If this variable is set, and is an array,
6671 the value of each set element is interpreted as a command to execute
6672 before printing the primary prompt (@env{$PS1}).
6673 If this is set but not an array variable,
6674 its value is used as a command to execute instead.
6676 @item PROMPT_DIRTRIM
6677 If set to a number greater than zero, the value is used as the number of
6678 trailing directory components to retain when expanding the @code{\w} and
6679 @code{\W} prompt string escapes (@pxref{Controlling the Prompt}).
6680 Characters removed are replaced with an ellipsis.
6683 The value of this parameter is expanded like @env{PS1}
6684 and displayed by interactive shells after reading a command
6685 and before the command is executed.
6688 The value of this variable is used as the prompt for the
6689 @code{select} command. If this variable is not set, the
6690 @code{select} command prompts with @samp{#? }
6693 The value of this parameter is expanded like @env{PS1}
6694 and the expanded value is the prompt printed before the command line
6695 is echoed when the @option{-x} option is set (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
6696 The first character of the expanded value is replicated multiple times,
6697 as necessary, to indicate multiple levels of indirection.
6698 The default is @samp{+ }.
6701 The current working directory as set by the @code{cd} builtin.
6704 Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to a random integer
6705 between 0 and 32767. Assigning a value to this
6706 variable seeds the random number generator.
6708 is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
6711 @item READLINE_ARGUMENT
6712 Any numeric argument given to a Readline command that was defined using
6713 @samp{bind -x} (@pxref{Bash Builtins}
6714 when it was invoked.
6717 The contents of the Readline line buffer, for use
6718 with @samp{bind -x} (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
6721 The position of the @dfn{mark} (saved insertion point) in the
6722 Readline line buffer, for use
6723 with @samp{bind -x} (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
6724 The characters between the insertion point and the mark are often
6725 called the @dfn{region}.
6727 @item READLINE_POINT
6728 The position of the insertion point in the Readline line buffer, for use
6729 with @samp{bind -x} (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
6732 The default variable for the @code{read} builtin.
6735 This variable expands to the number of seconds since the shell was started.
6736 Assignment to this variable resets the count to the value assigned, and the
6737 expanded value becomes the value assigned plus the number of seconds
6738 since the assignment.
6739 The number of seconds at shell invocation and the current time are always
6740 determined by querying the system clock.
6742 is unset, it loses its special properties,
6743 even if it is subsequently reset.
6746 This environment variable expands to the full pathname to the shell.
6747 If it is not set when the shell starts,
6748 Bash assigns to it the full pathname of the current user's login shell.
6751 A colon-separated list of enabled shell options. Each word in
6752 the list is a valid argument for the @option{-o} option to the
6753 @code{set} builtin command (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
6754 The options appearing in @env{SHELLOPTS} are those reported
6755 as @samp{on} by @samp{set -o}.
6756 If this variable is in the environment when Bash
6757 starts up, each shell option in the list will be enabled before
6758 reading any startup files. This variable is readonly.
6761 Incremented by one each time a new instance of Bash is started. This is
6762 intended to be a count of how deeply your Bash shells are nested.
6765 This variable expands to a 32-bit pseudo-random number each time it is
6766 referenced. The random number generator is not linear on systems that
6767 support @file{/dev/urandom} or @code{arc4random}, so each returned number
6768 has no relationship to the numbers preceding it.
6769 The random number generator cannot be seeded, so assignments to this
6770 variable have no effect.
6772 is unset, it loses its special properties,
6773 even if it is subsequently reset.
6776 The value of this parameter is used as a format string specifying
6777 how the timing information for pipelines prefixed with the @code{time}
6778 reserved word should be displayed.
6779 The @samp{%} character introduces an
6780 escape sequence that is expanded to a time value or other
6782 The escape sequences and their meanings are as
6783 follows; the braces denote optional portions.
6790 @item %[@var{p}][l]R
6791 The elapsed time in seconds.
6793 @item %[@var{p}][l]U
6794 The number of CPU seconds spent in user mode.
6796 @item %[@var{p}][l]S
6797 The number of CPU seconds spent in system mode.
6800 The CPU percentage, computed as (%U + %S) / %R.
6803 The optional @var{p} is a digit specifying the precision, the number of
6804 fractional digits after a decimal point.
6805 A value of 0 causes no decimal point or fraction to be output.
6806 At most three places after the decimal point may be specified; values
6807 of @var{p} greater than 3 are changed to 3.
6808 If @var{p} is not specified, the value 3 is used.
6810 The optional @code{l} specifies a longer format, including minutes, of
6811 the form @var{MM}m@var{SS}.@var{FF}s.
6812 The value of @var{p} determines whether or not the fraction is included.
6814 If this variable is not set, Bash acts as if it had the value
6816 @code{$'\nreal\t%3lR\nuser\t%3lU\nsys\t%3lS'}
6818 If the value is null, no timing information is displayed.
6819 A trailing newline is added when the format string is displayed.
6822 If set to a value greater than zero, @code{TMOUT} is treated as the
6823 default timeout for the @code{read} builtin (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
6824 The @code{select} command (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}) terminates
6825 if input does not arrive after @code{TMOUT} seconds when input is coming
6828 In an interactive shell, the value is interpreted as
6829 the number of seconds to wait for a line of input after issuing
6832 terminates after waiting for that number of seconds if a complete
6833 line of input does not arrive.
6836 If set, Bash uses its value as the name of a directory in which
6837 Bash creates temporary files for the shell's use.
6840 The numeric real user id of the current user. This variable is readonly.
6845 @chapter Bash Features
6847 This chapter describes features unique to Bash.
6850 * Invoking Bash:: Command line options that you can give
6852 * Bash Startup Files:: When and how Bash executes scripts.
6853 * Interactive Shells:: What an interactive shell is.
6854 * Bash Conditional Expressions:: Primitives used in composing expressions for
6855 the @code{test} builtin.
6856 * Shell Arithmetic:: Arithmetic on shell variables.
6857 * Aliases:: Substituting one command for another.
6858 * Arrays:: Array Variables.
6859 * The Directory Stack:: History of visited directories.
6860 * Controlling the Prompt:: Customizing the various prompt strings.
6861 * The Restricted Shell:: A more controlled mode of shell execution.
6862 * Bash POSIX Mode:: Making Bash behave more closely to what
6863 the POSIX standard specifies.
6864 * Shell Compatibility Mode:: How Bash supports behavior that was present
6865 in earlier versions and has changed.
6869 @section Invoking Bash
6872 bash [long-opt] [-ir] [-abefhkmnptuvxdBCDHP] [-o @var{option}]
6873 [-O @var{shopt_option}] [@var{argument} @dots{}]
6874 bash [long-opt] [-abefhkmnptuvxdBCDHP] [-o @var{option}]
6875 [-O @var{shopt_option}] -c @var{string} [@var{argument} @dots{}]
6876 bash [long-opt] -s [-abefhkmnptuvxdBCDHP] [-o @var{option}]
6877 [-O @var{shopt_option}] [@var{argument} @dots{}]
6880 All of the single-character options used with the @code{set} builtin
6881 (@pxref{The Set Builtin}) can be used as options when the shell is invoked.
6882 In addition, there are several multi-character
6883 options that you can use. These options must appear on the command
6884 line before the single-character options to be recognized.
6888 Arrange for the debugger profile to be executed before the shell
6889 starts. Turns on extended debugging mode (see @ref{The Shopt Builtin}
6890 for a description of the @code{extdebug} option to the @code{shopt}
6893 @item --dump-po-strings
6894 A list of all double-quoted strings preceded by @samp{$}
6895 is printed on the standard output
6896 in the @sc{gnu} @code{gettext} PO (portable object) file format.
6897 Equivalent to @option{-D} except for the output format.
6899 @item --dump-strings
6900 Equivalent to @option{-D}.
6903 Display a usage message on standard output and exit successfully.
6905 @item --init-file @var{filename}
6906 @itemx --rcfile @var{filename}
6907 Execute commands from @var{filename} (instead of @file{~/.bashrc})
6908 in an interactive shell.
6911 Equivalent to @option{-l}.
6914 Do not use the @sc{gnu} Readline library (@pxref{Command Line Editing})
6915 to read command lines when the shell is interactive.
6918 Don't load the system-wide startup file @file{/etc/profile}
6919 or any of the personal initialization files
6920 @file{~/.bash_profile}, @file{~/.bash_login}, or @file{~/.profile}
6921 when Bash is invoked as a login shell.
6924 Don't read the @file{~/.bashrc} initialization file in an
6925 interactive shell. This is on by default if the shell is
6926 invoked as @code{sh}.
6929 Change the behavior of Bash where the default operation differs
6930 from the @sc{posix} standard to match the standard. This
6931 is intended to make Bash behave as a strict superset of that
6932 standard. @xref{Bash POSIX Mode}, for a description of the Bash
6936 Make the shell a restricted shell (@pxref{The Restricted Shell}).
6939 Equivalent to @option{-v}. Print shell input lines as they're read.
6942 Show version information for this instance of
6943 Bash on the standard output and exit successfully.
6946 There are several single-character options that may be supplied at
6947 invocation which are not available with the @code{set} builtin.
6951 Read and execute commands from the first non-option argument
6952 @var{command_string}, then exit.
6953 If there are arguments after the @var{command_string},
6954 the first argument is assigned to @code{$0}
6955 and any remaining arguments are assigned to the positional parameters.
6956 The assignment to @code{$0} sets the name of the shell, which is used
6957 in warning and error messages.
6960 Force the shell to run interactively. Interactive shells are
6961 described in @ref{Interactive Shells}.
6964 Make this shell act as if it had been directly invoked by login.
6965 When the shell is interactive, this is equivalent to starting a
6966 login shell with @samp{exec -l bash}.
6967 When the shell is not interactive, the login shell startup files will
6969 @samp{exec bash -l} or @samp{exec bash --login}
6970 will replace the current shell with a Bash login shell.
6971 @xref{Bash Startup Files}, for a description of the special behavior
6975 Make the shell a restricted shell (@pxref{The Restricted Shell}).
6978 If this option is present, or if no arguments remain after option
6979 processing, then commands are read from the standard input.
6980 This option allows the positional parameters to be set
6981 when invoking an interactive shell or when reading input
6985 A list of all double-quoted strings preceded by @samp{$}
6986 is printed on the standard output.
6987 These are the strings that
6988 are subject to language translation when the current locale
6989 is not @code{C} or @code{POSIX} (@pxref{Locale Translation}).
6990 This implies the @option{-n} option; no commands will be executed.
6992 @item [-+]O [@var{shopt_option}]
6993 @var{shopt_option} is one of the shell options accepted by the
6994 @code{shopt} builtin (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}).
6995 If @var{shopt_option} is present, @option{-O} sets the value of that option;
6996 @option{+O} unsets it.
6997 If @var{shopt_option} is not supplied, the names and values of the shell
6998 options accepted by @code{shopt} are printed on the standard output.
6999 If the invocation option is @option{+O}, the output is displayed in a format
7000 that may be reused as input.
7003 A @code{--} signals the end of options and disables further option
7005 Any arguments after the @code{--} are treated as filenames and arguments.
7009 A @emph{login} shell is one whose first character of argument zero is
7010 @samp{-}, or one invoked with the @option{--login} option.
7012 @cindex interactive shell
7013 An @emph{interactive} shell is one started without non-option arguments,
7014 unless @option{-s} is specified,
7015 without specifying the @option{-c} option, and whose input and output are both
7016 connected to terminals (as determined by @code{isatty(3)}), or one
7017 started with the @option{-i} option. @xref{Interactive Shells}, for more
7020 If arguments remain after option processing, and neither the
7021 @option{-c} nor the @option{-s}
7022 option has been supplied, the first argument is assumed to
7023 be the name of a file containing shell commands (@pxref{Shell Scripts}).
7024 When Bash is invoked in this fashion, @code{$0}
7025 is set to the name of the file, and the positional parameters
7026 are set to the remaining arguments.
7027 Bash reads and executes commands from this file, then exits.
7028 Bash's exit status is the exit status of the last command executed
7029 in the script. If no commands are executed, the exit status is 0.
7031 @node Bash Startup Files
7032 @section Bash Startup Files
7033 @cindex startup files
7035 This section describes how Bash executes its startup files.
7036 If any of the files exist but cannot be read, Bash reports an error.
7037 Tildes are expanded in filenames as described above under
7038 Tilde Expansion (@pxref{Tilde Expansion}).
7040 Interactive shells are described in @ref{Interactive Shells}.
7042 @subsubheading Invoked as an interactive login shell, or with @option{--login}
7044 When Bash is invoked as an interactive login shell, or as a
7045 non-interactive shell with the @option{--login} option, it first reads and
7046 executes commands from the file @file{/etc/profile}, if that file exists.
7047 After reading that file, it looks for @file{~/.bash_profile},
7048 @file{~/.bash_login}, and @file{~/.profile}, in that order, and reads
7049 and executes commands from the first one that exists and is readable.
7050 The @option{--noprofile} option may be used when the shell is started to
7051 inhibit this behavior.
7053 When an interactive login shell exits,
7054 or a non-interactive login shell executes the @code{exit} builtin command,
7055 Bash reads and executes commands from
7056 the file @file{~/.bash_logout}, if it exists.
7058 @subsubheading Invoked as an interactive non-login shell
7060 When an interactive shell that is not a login shell is started, Bash
7061 reads and executes commands from @file{~/.bashrc}, if that file exists.
7062 This may be inhibited by using the @option{--norc} option.
7063 The @option{--rcfile @var{file}} option will force Bash to read and
7064 execute commands from @var{file} instead of @file{~/.bashrc}.
7066 So, typically, your @file{~/.bash_profile} contains the line
7068 @code{if [ -f ~/.bashrc ]; then . ~/.bashrc; fi}
7071 after (or before) any login-specific initializations.
7073 @subsubheading Invoked non-interactively
7075 When Bash is started non-interactively, to run a shell script,
7076 for example, it looks for the variable @env{BASH_ENV} in the environment,
7077 expands its value if it appears there, and uses the expanded value as
7078 the name of a file to read and execute. Bash behaves as if the
7079 following command were executed:
7081 @code{if [ -n "$BASH_ENV" ]; then . "$BASH_ENV"; fi}
7084 but the value of the @env{PATH} variable is not used to search for the
7087 As noted above, if a non-interactive shell is invoked with the
7088 @option{--login} option, Bash attempts to read and execute commands from the
7089 login shell startup files.
7091 @subsubheading Invoked with name @code{sh}
7093 If Bash is invoked with the name @code{sh}, it tries to mimic the
7094 startup behavior of historical versions of @code{sh} as closely as
7095 possible, while conforming to the @sc{posix} standard as well.
7097 When invoked as an interactive login shell, or as a non-interactive
7098 shell with the @option{--login} option, it first attempts to read
7099 and execute commands from @file{/etc/profile} and @file{~/.profile}, in
7101 The @option{--noprofile} option may be used to inhibit this behavior.
7102 When invoked as an interactive shell with the name @code{sh}, Bash
7103 looks for the variable @env{ENV}, expands its value if it is defined,
7104 and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute.
7105 Since a shell invoked as @code{sh} does not attempt to read and execute
7106 commands from any other startup files, the @option{--rcfile} option has
7108 A non-interactive shell invoked with the name @code{sh} does not attempt
7109 to read any other startup files.
7111 When invoked as @code{sh}, Bash enters @sc{posix} mode after
7112 the startup files are read.
7114 @subsubheading Invoked in @sc{posix} mode
7116 When Bash is started in @sc{posix} mode, as with the
7117 @option{--posix} command line option, it follows the @sc{posix} standard
7119 In this mode, interactive shells expand the @env{ENV} variable
7120 and commands are read and executed from the file whose name is the
7122 No other startup files are read.
7124 @subsubheading Invoked by remote shell daemon
7126 Bash attempts to determine when it is being run with its standard input
7127 connected to a network connection, as when executed by
7128 the historical remote shell daemon, usually @code{rshd},
7129 or the secure shell daemon @code{sshd}.
7131 determines it is being run non-interactively in this fashion,
7132 it reads and executes commands from @file{~/.bashrc}, if that
7133 file exists and is readable.
7134 It will not do this if invoked as @code{sh}.
7135 The @option{--norc} option may be used to inhibit this behavior, and the
7136 @option{--rcfile} option may be used to force another file to be read, but
7137 neither @code{rshd} nor @code{sshd} generally invoke the shell with those
7138 options or allow them to be specified.
7140 @subsubheading Invoked with unequal effective and real @sc{uid/gid}s
7142 If Bash is started with the effective user (group) id not equal to the
7143 real user (group) id, and the @option{-p} option is not supplied, no startup
7144 files are read, shell functions are not inherited from the environment,
7145 the @env{SHELLOPTS}, @env{BASHOPTS}, @env{CDPATH}, and @env{GLOBIGNORE}
7146 variables, if they appear in the environment, are ignored, and the effective
7147 user id is set to the real user id.
7148 If the @option{-p} option is supplied at invocation, the startup behavior is
7149 the same, but the effective user id is not reset.
7151 @node Interactive Shells
7152 @section Interactive Shells
7153 @cindex interactive shell
7154 @cindex shell, interactive
7157 * What is an Interactive Shell?:: What determines whether a shell is Interactive.
7158 * Is this Shell Interactive?:: How to tell if a shell is interactive.
7159 * Interactive Shell Behavior:: What changes in an interactive shell?
7162 @node What is an Interactive Shell?
7163 @subsection What is an Interactive Shell?
7165 An interactive shell
7166 is one started without non-option arguments
7167 (unless @option{-s} is specified)
7168 and without specifying the @option{-c} option,
7169 whose input and error output are both
7170 connected to terminals (as determined by @code{isatty(3)}),
7171 or one started with the @option{-i} option.
7173 An interactive shell generally reads from and writes to a user's
7176 The @option{-s} invocation option may be used to set the positional parameters
7177 when an interactive shell is started.
7179 @node Is this Shell Interactive?
7180 @subsection Is this Shell Interactive?
7182 To determine within a startup script whether or not Bash is
7183 running interactively,
7184 test the value of the @samp{-} special parameter.
7185 It contains @code{i} when the shell is interactive. For example:
7189 *i*) echo This shell is interactive ;;
7190 *) echo This shell is not interactive ;;
7194 Alternatively, startup scripts may examine the variable
7195 @env{PS1}; it is unset in non-interactive shells, and set in
7196 interactive shells. Thus:
7199 if [ -z "$PS1" ]; then
7200 echo This shell is not interactive
7202 echo This shell is interactive
7206 @node Interactive Shell Behavior
7207 @subsection Interactive Shell Behavior
7209 When the shell is running interactively, it changes its behavior in
7214 Startup files are read and executed as described in @ref{Bash Startup Files}.
7217 Job Control (@pxref{Job Control}) is enabled by default. When job
7218 control is in effect, Bash ignores the keyboard-generated job control
7219 signals @code{SIGTTIN}, @code{SIGTTOU}, and @code{SIGTSTP}.
7222 Bash expands and displays @env{PS1} before reading the first line
7223 of a command, and expands and displays @env{PS2} before reading the
7224 second and subsequent lines of a multi-line command.
7225 Bash expands and displays @env{PS0} after it reads a command but before
7227 See @ref{Controlling the Prompt}, for a complete list of prompt
7228 string escape sequences.
7231 Bash executes the values of the set elements of the @env{PROMPT_COMMAND}
7232 array variable as commands before printing the primary prompt, @env{$PS1}
7233 (@pxref{Bash Variables}).
7236 Readline (@pxref{Command Line Editing}) is used to read commands from
7237 the user's terminal.
7240 Bash inspects the value of the @code{ignoreeof} option to @code{set -o}
7241 instead of exiting immediately when it receives an @code{EOF} on its
7242 standard input when reading a command (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
7245 Command history (@pxref{Bash History Facilities})
7246 and history expansion (@pxref{History Interaction})
7247 are enabled by default.
7248 Bash will save the command history to the file named by @env{$HISTFILE}
7249 when a shell with history enabled exits.
7252 Alias expansion (@pxref{Aliases}) is performed by default.
7255 In the absence of any traps, Bash ignores @code{SIGTERM}
7259 In the absence of any traps, @code{SIGINT} is caught and handled
7261 @code{SIGINT} will interrupt some shell builtins.
7264 An interactive login shell sends a @code{SIGHUP} to all jobs on exit
7265 if the @code{huponexit} shell option has been enabled (@pxref{Signals}).
7268 The @option{-n} invocation option is ignored, and @samp{set -n} has
7269 no effect (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
7272 Bash will check for mail periodically, depending on the values of the
7273 @env{MAIL}, @env{MAILPATH}, and @env{MAILCHECK} shell variables
7274 (@pxref{Bash Variables}).
7277 Expansion errors due to references to unbound shell variables after
7278 @samp{set -u} has been enabled will not cause the shell to exit
7279 (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
7282 The shell will not exit on expansion errors caused by @var{var} being unset
7283 or null in @code{$@{@var{var}:?@var{word}@}} expansions
7284 (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
7287 Redirection errors encountered by shell builtins will not cause the
7291 When running in @sc{posix} mode, a special builtin returning an error
7292 status will not cause the shell to exit (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}).
7295 A failed @code{exec} will not cause the shell to exit
7296 (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
7299 Parser syntax errors will not cause the shell to exit.
7302 If the @code{cdspell} shell option is enabled, the shell will attempt
7303 simple spelling correction for directory arguments to the @code{cd}
7304 builtin (see the description of the @code{cdspell}
7305 option to the @code{shopt} builtin in @ref{The Shopt Builtin}).
7306 The @code{cdspell} option is only effective in interactive shells.
7309 The shell will check the value of the @env{TMOUT} variable and exit
7310 if a command is not read within the specified number of seconds after
7311 printing @env{$PS1} (@pxref{Bash Variables}).
7315 @node Bash Conditional Expressions
7316 @section Bash Conditional Expressions
7317 @cindex expressions, conditional
7319 Conditional expressions are used by the @code{[[} compound command
7320 (@pxref{Conditional Constructs})
7321 and the @code{test} and @code{[} builtin commands
7322 (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
7324 and @code{[} commands determine their behavior based on the number
7325 of arguments; see the descriptions of those commands for any other
7326 command-specific actions.
7328 Expressions may be unary or binary,
7329 and are formed from the following primaries.
7330 Unary expressions are often used to examine the status of a file.
7331 There are string operators and numeric comparison operators as well.
7332 Bash handles several filenames specially when they are used in
7334 If the operating system on which Bash is running provides these
7335 special files, Bash will use them; otherwise it will emulate them
7336 internally with this behavior:
7337 If the @var{file} argument to one of the primaries is of the form
7338 @file{/dev/fd/@var{N}}, then file descriptor @var{N} is checked.
7339 If the @var{file} argument to one of the primaries is one of
7340 @file{/dev/stdin}, @file{/dev/stdout}, or @file{/dev/stderr}, file
7341 descriptor 0, 1, or 2, respectively, is checked.
7343 When used with @code{[[}, the @samp{<} and @samp{>} operators sort
7344 lexicographically using the current locale.
7345 The @code{test} command uses ASCII ordering.
7347 Unless otherwise specified, primaries that operate on files follow symbolic
7348 links and operate on the target of the link, rather than the link itself.
7352 True if @var{file} exists.
7355 True if @var{file} exists and is a block special file.
7358 True if @var{file} exists and is a character special file.
7361 True if @var{file} exists and is a directory.
7364 True if @var{file} exists.
7367 True if @var{file} exists and is a regular file.
7370 True if @var{file} exists and its set-group-id bit is set.
7373 True if @var{file} exists and is a symbolic link.
7376 True if @var{file} exists and its "sticky" bit is set.
7379 True if @var{file} exists and is a named pipe (FIFO).
7382 True if @var{file} exists and is readable.
7385 True if @var{file} exists and has a size greater than zero.
7388 True if file descriptor @var{fd} is open and refers to a terminal.
7391 True if @var{file} exists and its set-user-id bit is set.
7394 True if @var{file} exists and is writable.
7397 True if @var{file} exists and is executable.
7400 True if @var{file} exists and is owned by the effective group id.
7403 True if @var{file} exists and is a symbolic link.
7406 True if @var{file} exists and has been modified since it was last read.
7409 True if @var{file} exists and is owned by the effective user id.
7412 True if @var{file} exists and is a socket.
7414 @item @var{file1} -ef @var{file2}
7415 True if @var{file1} and @var{file2} refer to the same device and
7418 @item @var{file1} -nt @var{file2}
7419 True if @var{file1} is newer (according to modification date)
7420 than @var{file2}, or if @var{file1} exists and @var{file2} does not.
7422 @item @var{file1} -ot @var{file2}
7423 True if @var{file1} is older than @var{file2},
7424 or if @var{file2} exists and @var{file1} does not.
7426 @item -o @var{optname}
7427 True if the shell option @var{optname} is enabled.
7428 The list of options appears in the description of the @option{-o}
7429 option to the @code{set} builtin (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
7431 @item -v @var{varname}
7432 True if the shell variable @var{varname} is set (has been assigned a value).
7434 @item -R @var{varname}
7435 True if the shell variable @var{varname} is set and is a name reference.
7437 @item -z @var{string}
7438 True if the length of @var{string} is zero.
7440 @item -n @var{string}
7442 True if the length of @var{string} is non-zero.
7444 @item @var{string1} == @var{string2}
7445 @itemx @var{string1} = @var{string2}
7446 True if the strings are equal.
7447 When used with the @code{[[} command, this performs pattern matching as
7448 described above (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}).
7450 @samp{=} should be used with the @code{test} command for @sc{posix} conformance.
7452 @item @var{string1} != @var{string2}
7453 True if the strings are not equal.
7455 @item @var{string1} < @var{string2}
7456 True if @var{string1} sorts before @var{string2} lexicographically.
7458 @item @var{string1} > @var{string2}
7459 True if @var{string1} sorts after @var{string2} lexicographically.
7461 @item @var{arg1} OP @var{arg2}
7463 @samp{-eq}, @samp{-ne}, @samp{-lt}, @samp{-le}, @samp{-gt}, or @samp{-ge}.
7464 These arithmetic binary operators return true if @var{arg1}
7465 is equal to, not equal to, less than, less than or equal to,
7466 greater than, or greater than or equal to @var{arg2},
7467 respectively. @var{Arg1} and @var{arg2}
7468 may be positive or negative integers.
7469 When used with the @code{[[} command, @var{Arg1} and @var{Arg2}
7470 are evaluated as arithmetic expressions (@pxref{Shell Arithmetic}).
7473 @node Shell Arithmetic
7474 @section Shell Arithmetic
7475 @cindex arithmetic, shell
7476 @cindex shell arithmetic
7477 @cindex expressions, arithmetic
7478 @cindex evaluation, arithmetic
7479 @cindex arithmetic evaluation
7481 The shell allows arithmetic expressions to be evaluated, as one of
7482 the shell expansions or by using the @code{((} compound command, the
7483 @code{let} builtin, or the @option{-i} option to the @code{declare} builtin.
7485 Evaluation is done in fixed-width integers with no check for overflow,
7486 though division by 0 is trapped and flagged as an error.
7487 The operators and their precedence, associativity, and values
7488 are the same as in the C language.
7489 The following list of operators is grouped into levels of
7490 equal-precedence operators.
7491 The levels are listed in order of decreasing precedence.
7495 @item @var{id}++ @var{id}--
7496 variable post-increment and post-decrement
7498 @item ++@var{id} --@var{id}
7499 variable pre-increment and pre-decrement
7502 unary minus and plus
7505 logical and bitwise negation
7511 multiplication, division, remainder
7514 addition, subtraction
7517 left and right bitwise shifts
7523 equality and inequality
7529 bitwise exclusive OR
7540 @item expr ? expr : expr
7541 conditional operator
7543 @item = *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=
7550 Shell variables are allowed as operands; parameter expansion is
7551 performed before the expression is evaluated.
7552 Within an expression, shell variables may also be referenced by name
7553 without using the parameter expansion syntax.
7554 A shell variable that is null or unset evaluates to 0 when referenced
7555 by name without using the parameter expansion syntax.
7556 The value of a variable is evaluated as an arithmetic expression
7557 when it is referenced, or when a variable which has been given the
7558 @code{integer} attribute using @samp{declare -i} is assigned a value.
7559 A null value evaluates to 0.
7560 A shell variable need not have its @code{integer} attribute turned on
7561 to be used in an expression.
7563 Integer constants follow the C language definition, without suffixes or
7564 character constants.
7565 Constants with a leading 0 are interpreted as octal numbers.
7566 A leading @samp{0x} or @samp{0X} denotes hexadecimal. Otherwise,
7567 numbers take the form [@var{base}@code{#}]@var{n}, where the optional @var{base}
7568 is a decimal number between 2 and 64 representing the arithmetic
7569 base, and @var{n} is a number in that base.
7570 If @var{base}@code{#} is omitted, then base 10 is used.
7571 When specifying @var{n},
7572 if a non-digit is required,
7573 the digits greater than 9 are represented by the lowercase letters,
7574 the uppercase letters, @samp{@@}, and @samp{_}, in that order.
7575 If @var{base} is less than or equal to 36, lowercase and uppercase
7576 letters may be used interchangeably to represent numbers between 10
7579 Operators are evaluated in order of precedence. Sub-expressions in
7580 parentheses are evaluated first and may override the precedence
7585 @cindex alias expansion
7587 @dfn{Aliases} allow a string to be substituted for a word when it is used
7588 as the first word of a simple command.
7589 The shell maintains a list of aliases that may be set and unset with
7590 the @code{alias} and @code{unalias} builtin commands.
7592 The first word of each simple command, if unquoted, is checked to see
7594 If so, that word is replaced by the text of the alias.
7595 The characters @samp{/}, @samp{$}, @samp{`}, @samp{=} and any of the
7596 shell metacharacters or quoting characters listed above may not appear
7598 The replacement text may contain any valid
7599 shell input, including shell metacharacters.
7600 The first word of the replacement text is tested for
7601 aliases, but a word that is identical to an alias being expanded
7602 is not expanded a second time.
7603 This means that one may alias @code{ls} to @code{"ls -F"},
7604 for instance, and Bash does not try to recursively expand the
7606 If the last character of the alias value is a
7607 @code{blank}, then the next command word following the
7608 alias is also checked for alias expansion.
7610 Aliases are created and listed with the @code{alias}
7611 command, and removed with the @code{unalias} command.
7613 There is no mechanism for using arguments in the replacement text,
7615 If arguments are needed, use a shell function
7616 (@pxref{Shell Functions}).
7618 Aliases are not expanded when the shell is not interactive,
7619 unless the @code{expand_aliases} shell option is set using
7620 @code{shopt} (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}).
7622 The rules concerning the definition and use of aliases are
7623 somewhat confusing. Bash
7624 always reads at least one complete line of input,
7625 and all lines that make up a compound command,
7626 before executing any of the commands on that line or the compound command.
7627 Aliases are expanded when a
7628 command is read, not when it is executed. Therefore, an
7629 alias definition appearing on the same line as another
7630 command does not take effect until the next line of input is read.
7631 The commands following the alias definition
7632 on that line are not affected by the new alias.
7633 This behavior is also an issue when functions are executed.
7634 Aliases are expanded when a function definition is read,
7635 not when the function is executed, because a function definition
7636 is itself a command. As a consequence, aliases
7637 defined in a function are not available until after that
7638 function is executed. To be safe, always put
7639 alias definitions on a separate line, and do not use @code{alias}
7640 in compound commands.
7642 For almost every purpose, shell functions are preferred over aliases.
7648 Bash provides one-dimensional indexed and associative array variables.
7649 Any variable may be used as an indexed array;
7650 the @code{declare} builtin will explicitly declare an array.
7652 limit on the size of an array, nor any requirement that members
7653 be indexed or assigned contiguously.
7654 Indexed arrays are referenced using integers (including arithmetic
7655 expressions (@pxref{Shell Arithmetic})) and are zero-based;
7656 associative arrays use arbitrary strings.
7657 Unless otherwise noted, indexed array indices must be non-negative integers.
7659 An indexed array is created automatically if any variable is assigned to
7662 @var{name}[@var{subscript}]=@var{value}
7667 is treated as an arithmetic expression that must evaluate to a number.
7668 To explicitly declare an array, use
7670 declare -a @var{name}
7675 declare -a @var{name}[@var{subscript}]
7678 is also accepted; the @var{subscript} is ignored.
7681 Associative arrays are created using
7683 declare -A @var{name}
7687 specified for an array variable using the @code{declare} and
7688 @code{readonly} builtins. Each attribute applies to all members of
7691 Arrays are assigned to using compound assignments of the form
7693 @var{name}=(@var{value1} @var{value2} @dots{} )
7697 @var{value} may be of the form @code{[@var{subscript}]=}@var{string}.
7698 Indexed array assignments do not require anything but @var{string}.
7699 When assigning to indexed arrays, if
7700 the optional subscript is supplied, that index is assigned to;
7701 otherwise the index of the element assigned is the last index assigned
7702 to by the statement plus one. Indexing starts at zero.
7704 Each @var{value} in the list undergoes all the shell expansions
7705 described above (@pxref{Shell Expansions}).
7707 When assigning to an associative array, the words in a compound assignment
7708 may be either assignment statements, for which the subscript is required,
7709 or a list of words that is interpreted as a sequence of alternating keys
7711 @var{name}=(@var{key1} @var{value1} @var{key2} @var{value2} @dots{} ).
7712 These are treated identically to
7713 @var{name}=( [@var{key1}]=@var{value1} [@var{key2}]=@var{value2} @dots{} ).
7714 The first word in the list determines how the remaining words
7715 are interpreted; all assignments in a list must be of the same type.
7716 When using key/value pairs, the keys may not be missing or empty;
7717 a final missing value is treated like the empty string.
7719 This syntax is also accepted by the @code{declare}
7720 builtin. Individual array elements may be assigned to using the
7721 @code{@var{name}[@var{subscript}]=@var{value}} syntax introduced above.
7723 When assigning to an indexed array, if @var{name}
7724 is subscripted by a negative number, that number is
7725 interpreted as relative to one greater than the maximum index of
7726 @var{name}, so negative indices count back from the end of the
7727 array, and an index of -1 references the last element.
7729 The @samp{+=} operator will append to an array variable when assigning
7730 using the compound assignment syntax; see @ref{Shell Parameters} above.
7732 Any element of an array may be referenced using
7733 @code{$@{@var{name}[@var{subscript}]@}}.
7734 The braces are required to avoid
7735 conflicts with the shell's filename expansion operators. If the
7736 @var{subscript} is @samp{@@} or @samp{*}, the word expands to all members
7737 of the array @var{name}. These subscripts differ only when the word
7738 appears within double quotes.
7739 If the word is double-quoted,
7740 @code{$@{@var{name}[*]@}} expands to a single word with
7741 the value of each array member separated by the first character of the
7742 @env{IFS} variable, and @code{$@{@var{name}[@@]@}} expands each element of
7743 @var{name} to a separate word. When there are no array members,
7744 @code{$@{@var{name}[@@]@}} expands to nothing.
7745 If the double-quoted expansion occurs within a word, the expansion of
7746 the first parameter is joined with the beginning part of the original
7747 word, and the expansion of the last parameter is joined with the last
7748 part of the original word.
7749 This is analogous to the
7750 expansion of the special parameters @samp{@@} and @samp{*}.
7751 @code{$@{#@var{name}[@var{subscript}]@}} expands to the length of
7752 @code{$@{@var{name}[@var{subscript}]@}}.
7753 If @var{subscript} is @samp{@@} or
7754 @samp{*}, the expansion is the number of elements in the array.
7755 If the @var{subscript}
7756 used to reference an element of an indexed array
7757 evaluates to a number less than zero, it is
7758 interpreted as relative to one greater than the maximum index of the array,
7759 so negative indices count back from the end of the array,
7760 and an index of -1 refers to the last element.
7762 Referencing an array variable without a subscript is equivalent to
7763 referencing with a subscript of 0.
7764 Any reference to a variable using a valid subscript is legal, and
7765 @code{bash} will create an array if necessary.
7767 An array variable is considered set if a subscript has been assigned a
7768 value. The null string is a valid value.
7770 It is possible to obtain the keys (indices) of an array as well as the values.
7771 $@{!@var{name}[@@]@} and $@{!@var{name}[*]@} expand to the indices
7772 assigned in array variable @var{name}.
7773 The treatment when in double quotes is similar to the expansion of the
7774 special parameters @samp{@@} and @samp{*} within double quotes.
7776 The @code{unset} builtin is used to destroy arrays.
7777 @code{unset @var{name}[@var{subscript}]}
7778 destroys the array element at index @var{subscript}.
7779 Negative subscripts to indexed arrays are interpreted as described above.
7780 Unsetting the last element of an array variable does not unset the variable.
7781 @code{unset @var{name}}, where @var{name} is an array, removes the
7783 @code{unset @var{name}[@var{subscript}]} behaves differently
7784 depending on the array type when given a
7785 subscript of @samp{*} or @samp{@@}.
7786 When @var{name} is an associative array, it removes the element with key
7787 @samp{*} or @samp{@@}.
7788 If @var{name} is an indexed array, @code{unset} removes all of the elements,
7789 but does not remove the array itself.
7791 When using a variable name with a subscript as an argument to a command,
7792 such as with @code{unset}, without using the word expansion syntax
7793 described above, the argument is subject to the shell's filename expansion.
7794 If filename expansion is not desired, the argument should be quoted.
7796 The @code{declare}, @code{local}, and @code{readonly}
7797 builtins each accept a @option{-a} option to specify an indexed
7798 array and a @option{-A} option to specify an associative array.
7799 If both options are supplied, @option{-A} takes precedence.
7800 The @code{read} builtin accepts a @option{-a}
7801 option to assign a list of words read from the standard input
7802 to an array, and can read values from the standard input into
7803 individual array elements. The @code{set} and @code{declare}
7804 builtins display array values in a way that allows them to be
7807 @node The Directory Stack
7808 @section The Directory Stack
7809 @cindex directory stack
7812 * Directory Stack Builtins:: Bash builtin commands to manipulate
7813 the directory stack.
7816 The directory stack is a list of recently-visited directories. The
7817 @code{pushd} builtin adds directories to the stack as it changes
7818 the current directory, and the @code{popd} builtin removes specified
7819 directories from the stack and changes the current directory to
7820 the directory removed. The @code{dirs} builtin displays the contents
7821 of the directory stack. The current directory is always the "top"
7822 of the directory stack.
7824 The contents of the directory stack are also visible
7825 as the value of the @env{DIRSTACK} shell variable.
7827 @node Directory Stack Builtins
7828 @subsection Directory Stack Builtins
7835 dirs [-clpv] [+@var{N} | -@var{N}]
7838 Display the list of currently remembered directories. Directories
7839 are added to the list with the @code{pushd} command; the
7840 @code{popd} command removes directories from the list.
7841 The current directory is always the first directory in the stack.
7845 Clears the directory stack by deleting all of the elements.
7847 Produces a listing using full pathnames;
7848 the default listing format uses a tilde to denote the home directory.
7850 Causes @code{dirs} to print the directory stack with one entry per
7853 Causes @code{dirs} to print the directory stack with one entry per
7854 line, prefixing each entry with its index in the stack.
7856 Displays the @var{N}th directory (counting from the left of the
7857 list printed by @code{dirs} when invoked without options), starting
7860 Displays the @var{N}th directory (counting from the right of the
7861 list printed by @code{dirs} when invoked without options), starting
7868 popd [-n] [+@var{N} | -@var{N}]
7871 Removes elements from the directory stack.
7872 The elements are numbered from 0 starting at the first directory
7873 listed by @code{dirs};
7874 that is, @code{popd} is equivalent to @code{popd +0}.
7876 When no arguments are given, @code{popd}
7877 removes the top directory from the stack and changes to
7878 the new top directory.
7880 Arguments, if supplied, have the following meanings:
7884 Suppresses the normal change of directory when removing directories
7885 from the stack, so that only the stack is manipulated.
7887 Removes the @var{N}th directory (counting from the left of the
7888 list printed by @code{dirs}), starting with zero, from the stack.
7890 Removes the @var{N}th directory (counting from the right of the
7891 list printed by @code{dirs}), starting with zero, from the stack.
7894 If the top element of the directory stack is modified, and
7895 the @option{-n} option was not supplied, @code{popd} uses the @code{cd}
7896 builtin to change to the directory at the top of the stack.
7897 If the @code{cd} fails, @code{popd} returns a non-zero value.
7899 Otherwise, @code{popd} returns an unsuccessful status if
7900 an invalid option is encountered, the directory stack
7901 is empty, or a non-existent directory stack entry is specified.
7903 If the @code{popd} command is successful,
7904 Bash runs @code{dirs} to show the final contents of the directory stack,
7905 and the return status is 0.
7910 pushd [-n] [@var{+N} | @var{-N} | @var{dir}]
7913 Adds a directory to the top of the directory stack, or rotates
7914 the stack, making the new top of the stack the current working
7916 With no arguments, @code{pushd} exchanges the top two elements
7917 of the directory stack.
7919 Arguments, if supplied, have the following meanings:
7923 Suppresses the normal change of directory when rotating or
7924 adding directories to the stack, so that only the stack is manipulated.
7926 Brings the @var{N}th directory (counting from the left of the
7927 list printed by @code{dirs}, starting with zero) to the top of
7928 the list by rotating the stack.
7930 Brings the @var{N}th directory (counting from the right of the
7931 list printed by @code{dirs}, starting with zero) to the top of
7932 the list by rotating the stack.
7934 Makes @var{dir} be the top of the stack.
7937 After the stack has been modified, if the @option{-n} option was not
7938 supplied, @code{pushd} uses the @code{cd} builtin to change to the
7939 directory at the top of the stack.
7940 If the @code{cd} fails, @code{pushd} returns a non-zero value.
7942 Otherwise, if no arguments are supplied, @code{pushd} returns 0 unless the
7943 directory stack is empty.
7944 When rotating the directory stack, @code{pushd} returns 0 unless
7945 the directory stack is empty or a non-existent directory stack element
7948 If the @code{pushd} command is successful,
7949 Bash runs @code{dirs} to show the final contents of the directory stack.
7953 @node Controlling the Prompt
7954 @section Controlling the Prompt
7957 Bash examines the value of the array variable @env{PROMPT_COMMAND} just before
7958 printing each primary prompt.
7959 If any elements in @env{PROMPT_COMMAND} are set and non-null, Bash
7960 executes each value, in numeric order,
7961 just as if it had been typed on the command line.
7963 In addition, the following table describes the special characters which
7964 can appear in the prompt variables @env{PS0}, @env{PS1}, @env{PS2}, and
7971 The date, in "Weekday Month Date" format (e.g., "Tue May 26").
7972 @item \D@{@var{format}@}
7973 The @var{format} is passed to @code{strftime}(3) and the result is inserted
7974 into the prompt string; an empty @var{format} results in a locale-specific
7975 time representation. The braces are required.
7977 An escape character.
7979 The hostname, up to the first `.'.
7983 The number of jobs currently managed by the shell.
7985 The basename of the shell's terminal device name.
7991 The name of the shell, the basename of @code{$0} (the portion
7992 following the final slash).
7994 The time, in 24-hour HH:MM:SS format.
7996 The time, in 12-hour HH:MM:SS format.
7998 The time, in 12-hour am/pm format.
8000 The time, in 24-hour HH:MM format.
8002 The username of the current user.
8004 The version of Bash (e.g., 2.00)
8006 The release of Bash, version + patchlevel (e.g., 2.00.0)
8008 The value of the @code{PWD} shell variable (@env{$PWD}),
8009 with @env{$HOME} abbreviated with a tilde
8010 (uses the @env{$PROMPT_DIRTRIM} variable).
8012 The basename of @env{$PWD}, with @env{$HOME} abbreviated with a tilde.
8014 The history number of this command.
8016 The command number of this command.
8018 If the effective uid is 0, @code{#}, otherwise @code{$}.
8020 The character whose ASCII code is the octal value @var{nnn}.
8024 Begin a sequence of non-printing characters. This could be used to
8025 embed a terminal control sequence into the prompt.
8027 End a sequence of non-printing characters.
8030 The command number and the history number are usually different:
8031 the history number of a command is its position in the history
8032 list, which may include commands restored from the history file
8033 (@pxref{Bash History Facilities}), while the command number is
8034 the position in the sequence of commands executed during the current
8037 After the string is decoded, it is expanded via
8038 parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic
8039 expansion, and quote removal, subject to the value of the
8040 @code{promptvars} shell option (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}).
8041 This can have unwanted side effects if escaped portions of the string
8042 appear within command substitution or contain characters special to
8045 @node The Restricted Shell
8046 @section The Restricted Shell
8047 @cindex restricted shell
8049 If Bash is started with the name @code{rbash}, or the
8050 @option{--restricted}
8053 option is supplied at invocation, the shell becomes restricted.
8054 A restricted shell is used to
8055 set up an environment more controlled than the standard shell.
8056 A restricted shell behaves identically to @code{bash}
8057 with the exception that the following are disallowed or not performed:
8061 Changing directories with the @code{cd} builtin.
8063 Setting or unsetting the values of the @env{SHELL}, @env{PATH},
8065 @env{ENV}, or @env{BASH_ENV} variables.
8067 Specifying command names containing slashes.
8069 Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the @code{.}
8072 Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the @code{history}
8075 Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the @option{-p}
8076 option to the @code{hash} builtin command.
8078 Importing function definitions from the shell environment at startup.
8080 Parsing the value of @env{SHELLOPTS} from the shell environment at startup.
8082 Redirecting output using the @samp{>}, @samp{>|}, @samp{<>}, @samp{>&},
8083 @samp{&>}, and @samp{>>} redirection operators.
8085 Using the @code{exec} builtin to replace the shell with another command.
8087 Adding or deleting builtin commands with the
8088 @option{-f} and @option{-d} options to the @code{enable} builtin.
8090 Using the @code{enable} builtin command to enable disabled shell builtins.
8092 Specifying the @option{-p} option to the @code{command} builtin.
8094 Turning off restricted mode with @samp{set +r} or @samp{shopt -u restricted_shell}.
8097 These restrictions are enforced after any startup files are read.
8099 When a command that is found to be a shell script is executed
8100 (@pxref{Shell Scripts}), @code{rbash} turns off any restrictions in
8101 the shell spawned to execute the script.
8103 The restricted shell mode is only one component of a useful restricted
8104 environment. It should be accompanied by setting @env{PATH} to a value
8105 that allows execution of only a few verified commands (commands that
8106 allow shell escapes are particularly vulnerable), changing the current
8107 directory to a non-writable directory other than @env{$HOME} after login,
8108 not allowing the restricted shell to execute shell scripts, and cleaning
8109 the environment of variables that cause some commands to modify their
8110 behavior (e.g., @env{VISUAL} or @env{PAGER}).
8112 Modern systems provide more secure ways to implement a restricted environment,
8113 such as @code{jails}, @code{zones}, or @code{containers}.
8116 @node Bash POSIX Mode
8117 @section Bash POSIX Mode
8120 Starting Bash with the @option{--posix} command-line option or executing
8121 @samp{set -o posix} while Bash is running will cause Bash to conform more
8122 closely to the @sc{posix} standard by changing the behavior to
8123 match that specified by @sc{posix} in areas where the Bash default differs.
8125 When invoked as @code{sh}, Bash enters @sc{posix} mode after reading the
8128 The following list is what's changed when `@sc{posix} mode' is in effect:
8132 Bash ensures that the @env{POSIXLY_CORRECT} variable is set.
8135 When a command in the hash table no longer exists, Bash will re-search
8136 @env{$PATH} to find the new location. This is also available with
8137 @samp{shopt -s checkhash}.
8140 Bash will not insert a command without the execute bit set into the
8141 command hash table, even if it returns it as a (last-ditch) result
8142 from a @env{$PATH} search.
8145 The message printed by the job control code and builtins when a job
8146 exits with a non-zero status is `Done(status)'.
8149 The message printed by the job control code and builtins when a job
8150 is stopped is `Stopped(@var{signame})', where @var{signame} is, for
8151 example, @code{SIGTSTP}.
8154 Alias expansion is always enabled, even in non-interactive shells.
8157 Reserved words appearing in a context where reserved words are recognized
8158 do not undergo alias expansion.
8161 Alias expansion is performed when initially parsing a command substitution.
8162 The default mode generally defers it, when enabled, until the command
8163 substitution is executed. This means that command substitution will not
8164 expand aliases that are defined after the command substitution is initially
8165 parsed (e.g., as part of a function definition).
8168 The @sc{posix} @env{PS1} and @env{PS2} expansions of @samp{!} to
8169 the history number and @samp{!!} to @samp{!} are enabled,
8170 and parameter expansion is performed on the values of @env{PS1} and
8171 @env{PS2} regardless of the setting of the @code{promptvars} option.
8174 The @sc{posix} startup files are executed (@env{$ENV}) rather than
8175 the normal Bash files.
8178 Tilde expansion is only performed on assignments preceding a command
8179 name, rather than on all assignment statements on the line.
8182 The default history file is @file{~/.sh_history} (this is the
8183 default value of @env{$HISTFILE}).
8186 Redirection operators do not perform filename expansion on the word
8187 in the redirection unless the shell is interactive.
8190 Redirection operators do not perform word splitting on the word in the
8194 Function names must be valid shell @code{name}s. That is, they may not
8195 contain characters other than letters, digits, and underscores, and
8196 may not start with a digit. Declaring a function with an invalid name
8197 causes a fatal syntax error in non-interactive shells.
8200 Function names may not be the same as one of the @sc{posix} special
8204 @sc{posix} special builtins are found before shell functions
8205 during command lookup.
8208 When printing shell function definitions (e.g., by @code{type}), Bash does
8209 not print the @code{function} keyword.
8212 Literal tildes that appear as the first character in elements of
8213 the @env{PATH} variable are not expanded as described above
8214 under @ref{Tilde Expansion}.
8217 The @code{time} reserved word may be used by itself as a command. When
8218 used in this way, it displays timing statistics for the shell and its
8219 completed children. The @env{TIMEFORMAT} variable controls the format
8220 of the timing information.
8223 When parsing and expanding a $@{@dots{}@} expansion that appears within
8224 double quotes, single quotes are no longer special and cannot be used to
8225 quote a closing brace or other special character, unless the operator is
8226 one of those defined to perform pattern removal. In this case, they do
8227 not have to appear as matched pairs.
8230 The parser does not recognize @code{time} as a reserved word if the next
8231 token begins with a @samp{-}.
8235 When parsing @code{$()} command substitutions containing here-documents,
8236 the parser does not allow a here-document to be delimited by the closing
8237 right parenthesis. The newline after the here-document delimiter is required.
8241 The @samp{!} character does not introduce history expansion within a
8242 double-quoted string, even if the @code{histexpand} option is enabled.
8245 If a @sc{posix} special builtin returns an error status, a
8246 non-interactive shell exits. The fatal errors are those listed in
8247 the @sc{posix} standard, and include things like passing incorrect options,
8248 redirection errors, variable assignment errors for assignments preceding
8249 the command name, and so on.
8252 The @code{unset} builtin with the @option{-v} option specified returns a
8253 fatal error if it attempts to unset a @code{readonly} or @code{non-unsettable}
8254 variable, or encounters a variable name argument that is an invalid identifier,
8255 which causes a non-interactive shell to exit.
8258 A non-interactive shell exits with an error status if a variable
8259 assignment error occurs when no command name follows the assignment
8261 A variable assignment error occurs, for example, when trying to assign
8262 a value to a readonly variable.
8265 A non-interactive shell exits with an error status if a variable
8266 assignment error occurs in an assignment statement preceding a special
8267 builtin, but not with any other simple command. For any other simple
8268 command, the shell aborts execution of that command, and execution continues
8269 at the top level ("the shell shall not perform any further processing of the
8270 command in which the error occurred").
8273 A non-interactive shell exits with an error status if the iteration
8274 variable in a @code{for} statement or the selection variable in a
8275 @code{select} statement is a readonly variable.
8278 Non-interactive shells exit if @var{filename} in @code{.} @var{filename}
8282 Non-interactive shells exit if a syntax error in an arithmetic expansion
8283 results in an invalid expression.
8286 Non-interactive shells exit if a parameter expansion error occurs.
8289 Non-interactive shells exit if there is a syntax error in a script read
8290 with the @code{.} or @code{source} builtins, or in a string processed by
8291 the @code{eval} builtin.
8294 While variable indirection is available, it may not be applied to the
8295 @samp{#} and @samp{?} special parameters.
8298 Expanding the @samp{*} special parameter in a pattern context where the
8299 expansion is double-quoted does not treat the @code{$*} as if it were
8303 Assignment statements preceding @sc{posix} special builtins
8304 persist in the shell environment after the builtin completes.
8307 The @code{command} builtin does not prevent builtins that take assignment
8308 statements as arguments from expanding them as assignment statements;
8309 when not in @sc{posix} mode, assignment builtins lose their assignment
8310 statement expansion properties when preceded by @code{command}.
8313 The @code{bg} builtin uses the required format to describe each job placed
8314 in the background, which does not include an indication of whether the job
8315 is the current or previous job.
8318 The output of @samp{kill -l} prints all the signal names on a single line,
8319 separated by spaces, without the @samp{SIG} prefix.
8322 The @code{kill} builtin does not accept signal names with a @samp{SIG}
8326 The @code{export} and @code{readonly} builtin commands display their
8327 output in the format required by @sc{posix}.
8330 The @code{trap} builtin displays signal names without the leading
8334 The @code{trap} builtin doesn't check the first argument for a possible
8335 signal specification and revert the signal handling to the original
8336 disposition if it is, unless that argument consists solely of digits and
8337 is a valid signal number. If users want to reset the handler for a given
8338 signal to the original disposition, they should use @samp{-} as the
8342 @code{trap -p} without arguments displays signals whose dispositions are
8343 set to SIG_DFL and those that were ignored when the shell started, not
8344 just trapped signals.
8347 The @code{.} and @code{source} builtins do not search the current directory
8348 for the filename argument if it is not found by searching @env{PATH}.
8351 Enabling @sc{posix} mode has the effect of setting the
8352 @code{inherit_errexit} option, so
8353 subshells spawned to execute command substitutions inherit the value of
8354 the @option{-e} option from the parent shell.
8355 When the @code{inherit_errexit} option is not enabled,
8356 Bash clears the @option{-e} option in such subshells.
8359 Enabling @sc{posix} mode has the effect of setting the
8360 @code{shift_verbose} option, so numeric arguments to @code{shift}
8361 that exceed the number of positional parameters will result in an
8365 When the @code{alias} builtin displays alias definitions, it does not
8366 display them with a leading @samp{alias } unless the @option{-p} option
8370 When the @code{set} builtin is invoked without options, it does not display
8371 shell function names and definitions.
8374 When the @code{set} builtin is invoked without options, it displays
8375 variable values without quotes, unless they contain shell metacharacters,
8376 even if the result contains nonprinting characters.
8379 When the @code{cd} builtin is invoked in logical mode, and the pathname
8380 constructed from @code{$PWD} and the directory name supplied as an argument
8381 does not refer to an existing directory, @code{cd} will fail instead of
8382 falling back to physical mode.
8385 When the @code{cd} builtin cannot change a directory because the
8386 length of the pathname
8387 constructed from @code{$PWD} and the directory name supplied as an argument
8388 exceeds @code{PATH_MAX} when all symbolic links are expanded, @code{cd} will
8389 fail instead of attempting to use only the supplied directory name.
8392 The @code{pwd} builtin verifies that the value it prints is the same as the
8393 current directory, even if it is not asked to check the file system with the
8397 When listing the history, the @code{fc} builtin does not include an
8398 indication of whether or not a history entry has been modified.
8401 The default editor used by @code{fc} is @code{ed}.
8404 The @code{type} and @code{command} builtins will not report a non-executable
8405 file as having been found, though the shell will attempt to execute such a
8406 file if it is the only so-named file found in @code{$PATH}.
8409 The @code{vi} editing mode will invoke the @code{vi} editor directly when
8410 the @samp{v} command is run, instead of checking @code{$VISUAL} and
8414 When the @code{xpg_echo} option is enabled, Bash does not attempt to interpret
8415 any arguments to @code{echo} as options. Each argument is displayed, after
8416 escape characters are converted.
8419 The @code{ulimit} builtin uses a block size of 512 bytes for the @option{-c}
8420 and @option{-f} options.
8423 The arrival of @code{SIGCHLD} when a trap is set on @code{SIGCHLD} does
8424 not interrupt the @code{wait} builtin and cause it to return immediately.
8425 The trap command is run once for each child that exits.
8428 The @code{read} builtin may be interrupted by a signal for which a trap
8430 If Bash receives a trapped signal while executing @code{read}, the trap
8431 handler executes and @code{read} returns an exit status greater than 128.
8434 The @code{printf} builtin uses @code{double} (via @code{strtod}) to convert
8435 arguments corresponding to floating point conversion specifiers, instead of
8436 @code{long double} if it's available. The @samp{L} length modifier forces
8437 @code{printf} to use @code{long double} if it's available.
8440 Bash removes an exited background process's status from the list of such
8441 statuses after the @code{wait} builtin is used to obtain it.
8444 A double quote character (@samp{"}) is treated specially when it appears
8445 in a backquoted command substitution in the body of a here-document that
8446 undergoes expansion.
8447 That means, for example, that a backslash preceding a double quote
8448 character will escape it and the backslash will be removed.
8452 There is other @sc{posix} behavior that Bash does not implement by
8453 default even when in @sc{posix} mode.
8459 The @code{fc} builtin checks @code{$EDITOR} as a program to edit history
8460 entries if @code{FCEDIT} is unset, rather than defaulting directly to
8461 @code{ed}. @code{fc} uses @code{ed} if @code{EDITOR} is unset.
8464 As noted above, Bash requires the @code{xpg_echo} option to be enabled for
8465 the @code{echo} builtin to be fully conformant.
8469 Bash can be configured to be @sc{posix}-conformant by default, by specifying
8470 the @option{--enable-strict-posix-default} to @code{configure} when building
8471 (@pxref{Optional Features}).
8473 @node Shell Compatibility Mode
8474 @section Shell Compatibility Mode
8475 @cindex Compatibility Level
8476 @cindex Compatibility Mode
8478 Bash-4.0 introduced the concept of a @dfn{shell compatibility level},
8479 specified as a set of options to the shopt builtin
8485 There is only one current
8486 compatibility level -- each option is mutually exclusive.
8487 The compatibility level is intended to allow users to select behavior
8488 from previous versions that is incompatible with newer versions
8489 while they migrate scripts to use current features and
8490 behavior. It's intended to be a temporary solution.
8492 This section does not mention behavior that is standard for a particular
8493 version (e.g., setting @code{compat32} means that quoting the rhs of the regexp
8494 matching operator quotes special regexp characters in the word, which is
8495 default behavior in bash-3.2 and subsequent versions).
8497 If a user enables, say, @code{compat32}, it may affect the behavior of other
8498 compatibility levels up to and including the current compatibility level.
8499 The idea is that each compatibility level controls behavior that changed
8500 in that version of Bash,
8501 but that behavior may have been present in earlier versions.
8502 For instance, the change to use locale-based comparisons with the @code{[[}
8503 command came in bash-4.1, and earlier versions used ASCII-based comparisons,
8504 so enabling @code{compat32} will enable ASCII-based comparisons as well.
8505 That granularity may not be sufficient for
8506 all uses, and as a result users should employ compatibility levels carefully.
8507 Read the documentation for a particular feature to find out the
8510 Bash-4.3 introduced a new shell variable: @env{BASH_COMPAT}.
8512 to this variable (a decimal version number like 4.2, or an integer
8513 corresponding to the @code{compat}@var{NN} option, like 42) determines the
8514 compatibility level.
8516 Starting with bash-4.4, Bash has begun deprecating older compatibility
8518 Eventually, the options will be removed in favor of @env{BASH_COMPAT}.
8520 Bash-5.0 is the final version for which there will be an individual shopt
8521 option for the previous version. Users should use @env{BASH_COMPAT}
8522 on bash-5.0 and later versions.
8524 The following table describes the behavior changes controlled by each
8525 compatibility level setting.
8526 The @code{compat}@var{NN} tag is used as shorthand for setting the
8528 to @var{NN} using one of the following mechanisms.
8529 For versions prior to bash-5.0, the compatibility level may be set using
8530 the corresponding @code{compat}@var{NN} shopt option.
8531 For bash-4.3 and later versions, the @env{BASH_COMPAT} variable is preferred,
8532 and it is required for bash-5.1 and later versions.
8538 quoting the rhs of the @code{[[} command's regexp matching operator (=~)
8539 has no special effect
8545 interrupting a command list such as "a ; b ; c" causes the execution
8546 of the next command in the list (in bash-4.0 and later versions,
8547 the shell acts as if it received the interrupt, so
8548 interrupting one command in a list aborts the execution of the
8555 the @samp{<} and @samp{>} operators to the @code{[[} command do not
8556 consider the current locale when comparing strings; they use ASCII
8558 Bash versions prior to bash-4.1 use ASCII collation and strcmp(3);
8559 bash-4.1 and later use the current locale's collation sequence and
8566 in posix mode, @code{time} may be followed by options and still be
8567 recognized as a reserved word (this is @sc{posix} interpretation 267)
8569 in posix mode, the parser requires that an even number of single
8570 quotes occur in the @var{word} portion of a double-quoted $@{@dots{}@}
8571 parameter expansion and treats them specially, so that characters within
8572 the single quotes are considered quoted
8573 (this is @sc{posix} interpretation 221)
8579 the replacement string in double-quoted pattern substitution does not
8580 undergo quote removal, as it does in versions after bash-4.2
8582 in posix mode, single quotes are considered special when expanding
8583 the @var{word} portion of a double-quoted $@{@dots{}@} parameter expansion
8584 and can be used to quote a closing brace or other special character
8585 (this is part of @sc{posix} interpretation 221);
8586 in later versions, single quotes
8587 are not special within double-quoted word expansions
8593 the shell does not print a warning message if an attempt is made to
8594 use a quoted compound assignment as an argument to declare
8595 (e.g., declare -a foo='(1 2)'). Later versions warn that this usage is
8598 word expansion errors are considered non-fatal errors that cause the
8599 current command to fail, even in posix mode
8600 (the default behavior is to make them fatal errors that cause the shell
8603 when executing a shell function, the loop state (while/until/etc.)
8604 is not reset, so @code{break} or @code{continue} in that function will break
8605 or continue loops in the calling context. Bash-4.4 and later reset
8606 the loop state to prevent this
8612 the shell sets up the values used by @env{BASH_ARGV} and @env{BASH_ARGC}
8613 so they can expand to the shell's positional parameters even if extended
8614 debugging mode is not enabled
8616 a subshell inherits loops from its parent context, so @code{break}
8617 or @code{continue} will cause the subshell to exit.
8618 Bash-5.0 and later reset the loop state to prevent the exit
8620 variable assignments preceding builtins like @code{export} and @code{readonly}
8621 that set attributes continue to affect variables with the same
8622 name in the calling environment even if the shell is not in posix
8626 @item compat50 (set using BASH_COMPAT)
8629 Bash-5.1 changed the way @code{$RANDOM} is generated to introduce slightly
8630 more randomness. If the shell compatibility level is set to 50 or
8631 lower, it reverts to the method from bash-5.0 and previous versions,
8632 so seeding the random number generator by assigning a value to
8633 @env{RANDOM} will produce the same sequence as in bash-5.0
8635 If the command hash table is empty, Bash versions prior to bash-5.1
8636 printed an informational message to that effect, even when producing
8637 output that can be reused as input. Bash-5.1 suppresses that message
8638 when the @option{-l} option is supplied.
8641 @item compat51 (set using BASH_COMPAT)
8644 The @code{unset} builtin will unset the array @code{a} given an argument like
8646 Bash-5.2 will unset an element with key @samp{@@} (associative arrays)
8647 or remove all the elements without unsetting the array (indexed arrays)
8649 arithmetic commands ( ((...)) ) and the expressions in an arithmetic for
8650 statement can be expanded more than once
8652 expressions used as arguments to arithmetic operators in the @code{[[}
8653 conditional command can be expanded more than once
8655 the expressions in substring parameter brace expansion can be
8656 expanded more than once
8658 the expressions in the $(( ... )) word expansion can be expanded
8661 arithmetic expressions used as indexed array subscripts can be
8662 expanded more than once
8664 @code{test -v}, when given an argument of @samp{A[@@]}, where @var{A} is
8665 an existing associative array, will return true if the array has any set
8667 Bash-5.2 will look for and report on a key named @samp{@@}
8669 the $@{@var{parameter}[:]=@var{value}@} word expansion will return
8670 @var{value}, before any variable-specific transformations have been
8671 performed (e.g., converting to lowercase).
8672 Bash-5.2 will return the final value assigned to the variable.
8674 Parsing command substitutions will behave as if extended glob
8675 (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin})
8676 is enabled, so that parsing a command substitution containing an extglob
8677 pattern (say, as part of a shell function) will not fail.
8678 This assumes the intent is to enable extglob before the command is executed
8679 and word expansions are performed.
8680 It will fail at word expansion time if extglob hasn't been
8681 enabled by the time the command is executed.
8686 @chapter Job Control
8688 This chapter discusses what job control is, how it works, and how
8689 Bash allows you to access its facilities.
8692 * Job Control Basics:: How job control works.
8693 * Job Control Builtins:: Bash builtin commands used to interact
8695 * Job Control Variables:: Variables Bash uses to customize job
8699 @node Job Control Basics
8700 @section Job Control Basics
8704 @cindex suspending jobs
8707 refers to the ability to selectively stop (suspend)
8708 the execution of processes and continue (resume)
8709 their execution at a later point. A user typically employs
8710 this facility via an interactive interface supplied jointly
8711 by the operating system kernel's terminal driver and Bash.
8713 The shell associates a @var{job} with each pipeline. It keeps a
8714 table of currently executing jobs, which may be listed with the
8715 @code{jobs} command. When Bash starts a job
8716 asynchronously, it prints a line that looks
8722 indicating that this job is job number 1 and that the process @sc{id}
8723 of the last process in the pipeline associated with this job is
8724 25647. All of the processes in a single pipeline are members of
8725 the same job. Bash uses the @var{job} abstraction as the
8726 basis for job control.
8728 To facilitate the implementation of the user interface to job
8729 control, the operating system maintains the notion of a current terminal
8730 process group @sc{id}. Members of this process group (processes whose
8731 process group @sc{id} is equal to the current terminal process group
8732 @sc{id}) receive keyboard-generated signals such as @code{SIGINT}.
8733 These processes are said to be in the foreground. Background
8734 processes are those whose process group @sc{id} differs from the
8735 terminal's; such processes are immune to keyboard-generated
8736 signals. Only foreground processes are allowed to read from or, if
8737 the user so specifies with @code{stty tostop}, write to the terminal.
8738 Background processes which attempt to
8739 read from (write to when @code{stty tostop} is in effect) the
8740 terminal are sent a @code{SIGTTIN} (@code{SIGTTOU})
8741 signal by the kernel's terminal driver,
8742 which, unless caught, suspends the process.
8744 If the operating system on which Bash is running supports
8745 job control, Bash contains facilities to use it. Typing the
8746 @dfn{suspend} character (typically @samp{^Z}, Control-Z) while a
8747 process is running causes that process to be stopped and returns
8748 control to Bash. Typing the @dfn{delayed suspend} character
8749 (typically @samp{^Y}, Control-Y) causes the process to be stopped
8750 when it attempts to read input from the terminal, and control to
8751 be returned to Bash. The user then manipulates the state of
8752 this job, using the @code{bg} command to continue it in the
8753 background, the @code{fg} command to continue it in the
8754 foreground, or the @code{kill} command to kill it. A @samp{^Z}
8755 takes effect immediately, and has the additional side effect of
8756 causing pending output and typeahead to be discarded.
8758 There are a number of ways to refer to a job in the shell. The
8759 character @samp{%} introduces a job specification (@dfn{jobspec}).
8761 Job number @code{n} may be referred to as @samp{%n}.
8762 The symbols @samp{%%} and @samp{%+} refer to the shell's notion of the
8763 current job, which is the last job stopped while it was in the foreground
8764 or started in the background.
8765 A single @samp{%} (with no accompanying job specification) also refers
8767 The previous job may be referenced using @samp{%-}.
8768 If there is only a single job, @samp{%+} and @samp{%-} can both be used
8769 to refer to that job.
8770 In output pertaining to jobs (e.g., the output of the @code{jobs}
8771 command), the current job is always flagged with a @samp{+}, and the
8772 previous job with a @samp{-}.
8774 A job may also be referred to
8775 using a prefix of the name used to start it, or using a substring
8776 that appears in its command line. For example, @samp{%ce} refers
8777 to a stopped job whose command name begins with @samp{ce}.
8778 Using @samp{%?ce}, on the
8779 other hand, refers to any job containing the string @samp{ce} in
8780 its command line. If the prefix or substring matches more than one job,
8781 Bash reports an error.
8783 Simply naming a job can be used to bring it into the foreground:
8784 @samp{%1} is a synonym for @samp{fg %1}, bringing job 1 from the
8785 background into the foreground. Similarly, @samp{%1 &} resumes
8786 job 1 in the background, equivalent to @samp{bg %1}
8788 The shell learns immediately whenever a job changes state.
8789 Normally, Bash waits until it is about to print a prompt
8790 before reporting changes in a job's status so as to not interrupt
8792 If the @option{-b} option to the @code{set} builtin is enabled,
8793 Bash reports such changes immediately (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
8794 Any trap on @code{SIGCHLD} is executed for each child process
8797 If an attempt to exit Bash is made while jobs are stopped, (or running, if
8798 the @code{checkjobs} option is enabled -- see @ref{The Shopt Builtin}), the
8799 shell prints a warning message, and if the @code{checkjobs} option is
8800 enabled, lists the jobs and their statuses.
8801 The @code{jobs} command may then be used to inspect their status.
8802 If a second attempt to exit is made without an intervening command,
8803 Bash does not print another warning, and any stopped jobs are terminated.
8805 When the shell is waiting for a job or process using the @code{wait}
8806 builtin, and job control is enabled, @code{wait} will return when the
8807 job changes state. The @option{-f} option causes @code{wait} to wait
8808 until the job or process terminates before returning.
8810 @node Job Control Builtins
8811 @section Job Control Builtins
8818 bg [@var{jobspec} @dots{}]
8821 Resume each suspended job @var{jobspec} in the background, as if it
8822 had been started with @samp{&}.
8823 If @var{jobspec} is not supplied, the current job is used.
8824 The return status is zero unless it is run when job control is not
8825 enabled, or, when run with job control enabled, any
8826 @var{jobspec} was not found or specifies a job
8827 that was started without job control.
8835 Resume the job @var{jobspec} in the foreground and make it the current job.
8836 If @var{jobspec} is not supplied, the current job is used.
8837 The return status is that of the command placed into the foreground,
8838 or non-zero if run when job control is disabled or, when run with
8839 job control enabled, @var{jobspec} does not specify a valid job or
8840 @var{jobspec} specifies a job that was started without job control.
8845 jobs [-lnprs] [@var{jobspec}]
8846 jobs -x @var{command} [@var{arguments}]
8849 The first form lists the active jobs. The options have the
8854 List process @sc{id}s in addition to the normal information.
8857 Display information only about jobs that have changed status since
8858 the user was last notified of their status.
8861 List only the process @sc{id} of the job's process group leader.
8864 Display only running jobs.
8867 Display only stopped jobs.
8870 If @var{jobspec} is given,
8871 output is restricted to information about that job.
8872 If @var{jobspec} is not supplied, the status of all jobs is
8875 If the @option{-x} option is supplied, @code{jobs} replaces any
8876 @var{jobspec} found in @var{command} or @var{arguments} with the
8877 corresponding process group @sc{id}, and executes @var{command},
8878 passing it @var{argument}s, returning its exit status.
8883 kill [-s @var{sigspec}] [-n @var{signum}] [-@var{sigspec}] @var{jobspec} or @var{pid}
8884 kill -l|-L [@var{exit_status}]
8887 Send a signal specified by @var{sigspec} or @var{signum} to the process
8888 named by job specification @var{jobspec} or process @sc{id} @var{pid}.
8889 @var{sigspec} is either a case-insensitive signal name such as
8890 @code{SIGINT} (with or without the @code{SIG} prefix)
8891 or a signal number; @var{signum} is a signal number.
8892 If @var{sigspec} and @var{signum} are not present, @code{SIGTERM} is used.
8893 The @option{-l} option lists the signal names.
8894 If any arguments are supplied when @option{-l} is given, the names of the
8895 signals corresponding to the arguments are listed, and the return status
8897 @var{exit_status} is a number specifying a signal number or the exit
8898 status of a process terminated by a signal.
8899 The @option{-L} option is equivalent to @option{-l}.
8900 The return status is zero if at least one signal was successfully sent,
8901 or non-zero if an error occurs or an invalid option is encountered.
8906 wait [-fn] [-p @var{varname}] [@var{jobspec} or @var{pid} @dots{}]
8909 Wait until the child process specified by each process @sc{id} @var{pid}
8910 or job specification @var{jobspec} exits and return the exit status of the
8911 last command waited for.
8912 If a job spec is given, all processes in the job are waited for.
8913 If no arguments are given,
8914 @code{wait} waits for all running background jobs and
8915 the last-executed process substitution, if its process id is the same as
8917 and the return status is zero.
8918 If the @option{-n} option is supplied, @code{wait} waits for a single job
8919 from the list of @var{pid}s or @var{jobspec}s or, if no arguments are
8921 to complete and returns its exit status.
8922 If none of the supplied arguments is a child of the shell, or if no arguments
8923 are supplied and the shell has no unwaited-for children, the exit status
8925 If the @option{-p} option is supplied, the process or job identifier of the job
8926 for which the exit status is returned is assigned to the variable
8927 @var{varname} named by the option argument.
8928 The variable will be unset initially, before any assignment.
8929 This is useful only when the @option{-n} option is supplied.
8930 Supplying the @option{-f} option, when job control is enabled,
8931 forces @code{wait} to wait for each @var{pid} or @var{jobspec} to
8932 terminate before returning its status, instead of returning when it changes
8934 If neither @var{jobspec} nor @var{pid} specifies an active child process
8935 of the shell, the return status is 127.
8936 If @code{wait} is interrupted by a signal, the return status will be greater
8937 than 128, as described above (@pxref{Signals}).
8938 Otherwise, the return status is the exit status
8939 of the last process or job waited for.
8944 disown [-ar] [-h] [@var{jobspec} @dots{} | @var{pid} @dots{} ]
8947 Without options, remove each @var{jobspec} from the table of
8949 If the @option{-h} option is given, the job is not removed from the table,
8950 but is marked so that @code{SIGHUP} is not sent to the job if the shell
8951 receives a @code{SIGHUP}.
8952 If @var{jobspec} is not present, and neither the @option{-a} nor the
8953 @option{-r} option is supplied, the current job is used.
8954 If no @var{jobspec} is supplied, the @option{-a} option means to remove or
8955 mark all jobs; the @option{-r} option without a @var{jobspec}
8956 argument restricts operation to running jobs.
8964 Suspend the execution of this shell until it receives a
8965 @code{SIGCONT} signal.
8967 or a shell without job control enabled,
8968 cannot be suspended; the @option{-f}
8969 option can be used to override this and force the suspension.
8970 The return status is 0 unless the shell is a login shell
8971 or job control is not enabled
8978 When job control is not active, the @code{kill} and @code{wait}
8979 builtins do not accept @var{jobspec} arguments. They must be
8980 supplied process @sc{id}s.
8982 @node Job Control Variables
8983 @section Job Control Variables
8988 This variable controls how the shell interacts with the user and
8989 job control. If this variable exists then single word simple
8990 commands without redirections are treated as candidates for resumption
8991 of an existing job. There is no ambiguity allowed; if there is
8992 more than one job beginning with the string typed, then
8993 the most recently accessed job will be selected.
8994 The name of a stopped job, in this context, is the command line
8995 used to start it. If this variable is set to the value @samp{exact},
8996 the string supplied must match the name of a stopped job exactly;
8997 if set to @samp{substring},
8998 the string supplied needs to match a substring of the name of a
8999 stopped job. The @samp{substring} value provides functionality
9000 analogous to the @samp{%?} job @sc{id} (@pxref{Job Control Basics}).
9001 If set to any other value, the supplied string must
9002 be a prefix of a stopped job's name; this provides functionality
9003 analogous to the @samp{%} job @sc{id}.
9007 @set readline-appendix
9008 @set history-appendix
9009 @cindex Readline, how to use
9010 @include rluser.texi
9011 @cindex History, how to use
9012 @include hsuser.texi
9013 @clear readline-appendix
9014 @clear history-appendix
9016 @node Installing Bash
9017 @chapter Installing Bash
9019 This chapter provides basic instructions for installing Bash on
9020 the various supported platforms. The distribution supports the
9021 @sc{gnu} operating systems, nearly every version of Unix, and several
9022 non-Unix systems such as BeOS and Interix.
9023 Other independent ports exist for
9024 @sc{ms-dos}, @sc{os/2}, and Windows platforms.
9027 * Basic Installation:: Installation instructions.
9028 * Compilers and Options:: How to set special options for various
9030 * Compiling For Multiple Architectures:: How to compile Bash for more
9031 than one kind of system from
9032 the same source tree.
9033 * Installation Names:: How to set the various paths used by the installation.
9034 * Specifying the System Type:: How to configure Bash for a particular system.
9035 * Sharing Defaults:: How to share default configuration values among GNU
9037 * Operation Controls:: Options recognized by the configuration program.
9038 * Optional Features:: How to enable and disable optional features when
9042 @node Basic Installation
9043 @section Basic Installation
9044 @cindex installation
9045 @cindex configuration
9046 @cindex Bash installation
9047 @cindex Bash configuration
9049 These are installation instructions for Bash.
9051 The simplest way to compile Bash is:
9055 @code{cd} to the directory containing the source code and type
9056 @samp{./configure} to configure Bash for your system. If you're
9057 using @code{csh} on an old version of System V, you might need to
9058 type @samp{sh ./configure} instead to prevent @code{csh} from trying
9059 to execute @code{configure} itself.
9061 Running @code{configure} takes some time.
9062 While running, it prints messages telling which features it is
9066 Type @samp{make} to compile Bash and build the @code{bashbug} bug
9070 Optionally, type @samp{make tests} to run the Bash test suite.
9073 Type @samp{make install} to install @code{bash} and @code{bashbug}.
9074 This will also install the manual pages and Info file, message translation
9075 files, some supplemental documentation, a number of example loadable
9076 builtin commands, and a set of header files for developing loadable
9078 You may need additional privileges to install @code{bash} to your
9079 desired destination, so @samp{sudo make install} might be required.
9080 More information about controlling the locations where @code{bash} and
9081 other files are installed is below (@pxref{Installation Names}).
9085 The @code{configure} shell script attempts to guess correct
9086 values for various system-dependent variables used during
9087 compilation. It uses those values to create a @file{Makefile} in
9088 each directory of the package (the top directory, the
9089 @file{builtins}, @file{doc}, @file{po}, and @file{support} directories,
9090 each directory under @file{lib}, and several others). It also creates a
9091 @file{config.h} file containing system-dependent definitions.
9092 Finally, it creates a shell script named @code{config.status} that you
9093 can run in the future to recreate the current configuration, a
9094 file @file{config.cache} that saves the results of its tests to
9095 speed up reconfiguring, and a file @file{config.log} containing
9096 compiler output (useful mainly for debugging @code{configure}).
9098 @file{config.cache} contains results you don't want to keep, you
9099 may remove or edit it.
9101 To find out more about the options and arguments that the
9102 @code{configure} script understands, type
9105 bash-4.2$ ./configure --help
9109 at the Bash prompt in your Bash source directory.
9111 If you want to build Bash in a directory separate from the source
9112 directory -- to build for multiple architectures, for example --
9113 just use the full path to the configure script. The following commands
9114 will build bash in a directory under @file{/usr/local/build} from
9115 the source code in @file{/usr/local/src/bash-4.4}:
9118 mkdir /usr/local/build/bash-4.4
9119 cd /usr/local/build/bash-4.4
9120 bash /usr/local/src/bash-4.4/configure
9124 See @ref{Compiling For Multiple Architectures} for more information
9125 about building in a directory separate from the source.
9127 If you need to do unusual things to compile Bash, please
9128 try to figure out how @code{configure} could check whether or not
9129 to do them, and mail diffs or instructions to
9130 @email{bash-maintainers@@gnu.org} so they can be
9131 considered for the next release.
9133 The file @file{configure.ac} is used to create @code{configure}
9134 by a program called Autoconf.
9135 You only need @file{configure.ac} if you want to change it or regenerate
9136 @code{configure} using a newer version of Autoconf.
9137 If you do this, make sure you are using Autoconf version 2.69 or
9140 You can remove the program binaries and object files from the
9141 source code directory by typing @samp{make clean}. To also remove the
9142 files that @code{configure} created (so you can compile Bash for
9143 a different kind of computer), type @samp{make distclean}.
9145 @node Compilers and Options
9146 @section Compilers and Options
9148 Some systems require unusual options for compilation or linking
9149 that the @code{configure} script does not know about. You can
9150 give @code{configure} initial values for variables by setting
9151 them in the environment. Using a Bourne-compatible shell, you
9152 can do that on the command line like this:
9155 CC=c89 CFLAGS=-O2 LIBS=-lposix ./configure
9158 On systems that have the @code{env} program, you can do it like this:
9161 env CPPFLAGS=-I/usr/local/include LDFLAGS=-s ./configure
9164 The configuration process uses GCC to build Bash if it
9167 @node Compiling For Multiple Architectures
9168 @section Compiling For Multiple Architectures
9170 You can compile Bash for more than one kind of computer at the
9171 same time, by placing the object files for each architecture in their
9172 own directory. To do this, you must use a version of @code{make} that
9173 supports the @code{VPATH} variable, such as GNU @code{make}.
9175 directory where you want the object files and executables to go and run
9176 the @code{configure} script from the source directory
9177 (@pxref{Basic Installation}).
9179 supply the @option{--srcdir=PATH} argument to tell @code{configure} where the
9180 source files are. @code{configure} automatically checks for the
9181 source code in the directory that @code{configure} is in and in `..'.
9183 If you have to use a @code{make} that does not support the @code{VPATH}
9184 variable, you can compile Bash for one architecture at a
9185 time in the source code directory. After you have installed
9186 Bash for one architecture, use @samp{make distclean} before
9187 reconfiguring for another architecture.
9189 Alternatively, if your system supports symbolic links, you can use the
9190 @file{support/mkclone} script to create a build tree which has
9191 symbolic links back to each file in the source directory. Here's an
9192 example that creates a build directory in the current directory from a
9193 source directory @file{/usr/gnu/src/bash-2.0}:
9196 bash /usr/gnu/src/bash-2.0/support/mkclone -s /usr/gnu/src/bash-2.0 .
9200 The @code{mkclone} script requires Bash, so you must have already built
9201 Bash for at least one architecture before you can create build
9202 directories for other architectures.
9204 @node Installation Names
9205 @section Installation Names
9207 By default, @samp{make install} will install into
9208 @file{/usr/local/bin}, @file{/usr/local/man}, etc.;
9209 that is, the @dfn{installation prefix} defaults to @file{/usr/local}.
9210 You can specify an installation prefix other than @file{/usr/local} by
9211 giving @code{configure} the option @option{--prefix=@var{PATH}},
9212 or by specifying a value for the @env{prefix} @samp{make}
9213 variable when running @samp{make install}
9214 (e.g., @samp{make install prefix=@var{PATH}}).
9215 The @env{prefix} variable provides a default for @env{exec_prefix} and
9216 other variables used when installing bash.
9218 You can specify separate installation prefixes for
9219 architecture-specific files and architecture-independent files.
9220 If you give @code{configure} the option
9221 @option{--exec-prefix=@var{PATH}}, @samp{make install} will use
9222 @var{PATH} as the prefix for installing programs and libraries.
9223 Documentation and other data files will still use the regular prefix.
9225 If you would like to change the installation locations for a single run,
9226 you can specify these variables as arguments to @code{make}:
9227 @samp{make install exec_prefix=/} will install @code{bash} and
9228 @code{bashbug} into @file{/bin} instead of the default @file{/usr/local/bin}.
9230 If you want to see the files bash will install and where it will install
9231 them without changing anything on your system, specify the variable
9232 @env{DESTDIR} as an argument to @code{make}. Its value should be the
9233 absolute directory path you'd like to use as the root of your sample
9234 installation tree. For example,
9237 mkdir /fs1/bash-install
9238 make install DESTDIR=/fs1/bash-install
9242 will install @code{bash} into @file{/fs1/bash-install/usr/local/bin/bash},
9243 the documentation into directories within
9244 @file{/fs1/bash-install/usr/local/share}, the example loadable builtins into
9245 @file{/fs1/bash-install/usr/local/lib/bash}, and so on.
9246 You can use the usual @env{exec_prefix} and @env{prefix} variables to alter
9247 the directory paths beneath the value of @env{DESTDIR}.
9249 The GNU Makefile standards provide a more complete description of these
9250 variables and their effects.
9252 @node Specifying the System Type
9253 @section Specifying the System Type
9255 There may be some features @code{configure} can not figure out
9256 automatically, but needs to determine by the type of host Bash
9257 will run on. Usually @code{configure} can figure that
9258 out, but if it prints a message saying it can not guess the host
9259 type, give it the @option{--host=TYPE} option. @samp{TYPE} can
9260 either be a short name for the system type, such as @samp{sun4},
9261 or a canonical name with three fields: @samp{CPU-COMPANY-SYSTEM}
9262 (e.g., @samp{i386-unknown-freebsd4.2}).
9264 See the file @file{support/config.sub} for the possible
9265 values of each field.
9267 @node Sharing Defaults
9268 @section Sharing Defaults
9270 If you want to set default values for @code{configure} scripts to
9271 share, you can create a site shell script called
9272 @code{config.site} that gives default values for variables like
9273 @code{CC}, @code{cache_file}, and @code{prefix}. @code{configure}
9274 looks for @file{PREFIX/share/config.site} if it exists, then
9275 @file{PREFIX/etc/config.site} if it exists. Or, you can set the
9276 @code{CONFIG_SITE} environment variable to the location of the site
9277 script. A warning: the Bash @code{configure} looks for a site script,
9278 but not all @code{configure} scripts do.
9280 @node Operation Controls
9281 @section Operation Controls
9283 @code{configure} recognizes the following options to control how it
9288 @item --cache-file=@var{file}
9289 Use and save the results of the tests in
9290 @var{file} instead of @file{./config.cache}. Set @var{file} to
9291 @file{/dev/null} to disable caching, for debugging
9295 Print a summary of the options to @code{configure}, and exit.
9300 Do not print messages saying which checks are being made.
9302 @item --srcdir=@var{dir}
9303 Look for the Bash source code in directory @var{dir}. Usually
9304 @code{configure} can determine that directory automatically.
9307 Print the version of Autoconf used to generate the @code{configure}
9311 @code{configure} also accepts some other, not widely used, boilerplate
9312 options. @samp{configure --help} prints the complete list.
9314 @node Optional Features
9315 @section Optional Features
9317 The Bash @code{configure} has a number of @option{--enable-@var{feature}}
9318 options, where @var{feature} indicates an optional part of Bash.
9319 There are also several @option{--with-@var{package}} options,
9320 where @var{package} is something like @samp{bash-malloc} or @samp{purify}.
9321 To turn off the default use of a package, use
9322 @option{--without-@var{package}}. To configure Bash without a feature
9323 that is enabled by default, use @option{--disable-@var{feature}}.
9325 Here is a complete list of the @option{--enable-} and
9326 @option{--with-} options that the Bash @code{configure} recognizes.
9330 Define if you are using the Andrew File System from Transarc.
9332 @item --with-bash-malloc
9333 Use the Bash version of
9334 @code{malloc} in the directory @file{lib/malloc}. This is not the same
9335 @code{malloc} that appears in @sc{gnu} libc, but an older version
9336 originally derived from the 4.2 @sc{bsd} @code{malloc}. This @code{malloc}
9337 is very fast, but wastes some space on each allocation.
9338 This option is enabled by default.
9339 The @file{NOTES} file contains a list of systems for
9340 which this should be turned off, and @code{configure} disables this
9341 option automatically for a number of systems.
9344 Use the curses library instead of the termcap library. This should
9345 be supplied if your system has an inadequate or incomplete termcap
9348 @item --with-gnu-malloc
9349 A synonym for @code{--with-bash-malloc}.
9351 @item --with-installed-readline[=@var{PREFIX}]
9352 Define this to make Bash link with a locally-installed version of Readline
9353 rather than the version in @file{lib/readline}. This works only with
9354 Readline 5.0 and later versions. If @var{PREFIX} is @code{yes} or not
9355 supplied, @code{configure} uses the values of the make variables
9356 @code{includedir} and @code{libdir}, which are subdirectories of @code{prefix}
9357 by default, to find the installed version of Readline if it is not in
9358 the standard system include and library directories.
9359 If @var{PREFIX} is @code{no}, Bash links with the version in
9360 @file{lib/readline}.
9361 If @var{PREFIX} is set to any other value, @code{configure} treats it as
9362 a directory pathname and looks for
9363 the installed version of Readline in subdirectories of that directory
9364 (include files in @var{PREFIX}/@code{include} and the library in
9365 @var{PREFIX}/@code{lib}).
9367 @item --with-libintl-prefix[=@var{PREFIX}]
9368 Define this to make Bash link with a locally-installed version of the
9369 libintl library instead of the version in @file{lib/intl}.
9371 @item --with-libiconv-prefix[=@var{PREFIX}]
9372 Define this to make Bash look for libiconv in @var{PREFIX} instead of the
9373 standard system locations. There is no version included with Bash.
9375 @item --enable-minimal-config
9376 This produces a shell with minimal features, close to the historical
9380 There are several @option{--enable-} options that alter how Bash is
9381 compiled, linked, and installed, rather than changing run-time features.
9384 @item --enable-largefile
9385 Enable support for @uref{http://www.unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lfs20mar.html,
9386 large files} if the operating system requires special compiler options
9387 to build programs which can access large files. This is enabled by
9388 default, if the operating system provides large file support.
9390 @item --enable-profiling
9391 This builds a Bash binary that produces profiling information to be
9392 processed by @code{gprof} each time it is executed.
9394 @item --enable-separate-helpfiles
9395 Use external files for the documentation displayed by the @code{help} builtin
9396 instead of storing the text internally.
9398 @item --enable-static-link
9399 This causes Bash to be linked statically, if @code{gcc} is being used.
9400 This could be used to build a version to use as root's shell.
9404 The @samp{minimal-config} option can be used to disable all of
9405 the following options, but it is processed first, so individual
9406 options may be enabled using @samp{enable-@var{feature}}.
9408 All of the following options except for
9409 @samp{alt-array-implementation},
9410 @samp{disabled-builtins},
9411 @samp{direxpand-default},
9412 @samp{strict-posix-default},
9414 @samp{xpg-echo-default} are
9415 enabled by default, unless the operating system does not provide the
9419 @item --enable-alias
9420 Allow alias expansion and include the @code{alias} and @code{unalias}
9421 builtins (@pxref{Aliases}).
9423 @item --enable-alt-array-implementation
9424 This builds bash using an alternate implementation of arrays
9425 (@pxref{Arrays}) that provides faster access at the expense of using
9426 more memory (sometimes many times more, depending on how sparse an array is).
9428 @item --enable-arith-for-command
9429 Include support for the alternate form of the @code{for} command
9430 that behaves like the C language @code{for} statement
9431 (@pxref{Looping Constructs}).
9433 @item --enable-array-variables
9434 Include support for one-dimensional array shell variables
9437 @item --enable-bang-history
9438 Include support for @code{csh}-like history substitution
9439 (@pxref{History Interaction}).
9441 @item --enable-brace-expansion
9442 Include @code{csh}-like brace expansion
9443 ( @code{b@{a,b@}c} @expansion{} @code{bac bbc} ).
9444 See @ref{Brace Expansion}, for a complete description.
9446 @item --enable-casemod-attributes
9447 Include support for case-modifying attributes in the @code{declare} builtin
9448 and assignment statements. Variables with the @code{uppercase} attribute,
9449 for example, will have their values converted to uppercase upon assignment.
9451 @item --enable-casemod-expansion
9452 Include support for case-modifying word expansions.
9454 @item --enable-command-timing
9455 Include support for recognizing @code{time} as a reserved word and for
9456 displaying timing statistics for the pipeline following @code{time}
9457 (@pxref{Pipelines}).
9458 This allows pipelines as well as shell builtins and functions to be timed.
9460 @item --enable-cond-command
9461 Include support for the @code{[[} conditional command.
9462 (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}).
9464 @item --enable-cond-regexp
9465 Include support for matching @sc{posix} regular expressions using the
9466 @samp{=~} binary operator in the @code{[[} conditional command.
9467 (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}).
9469 @item --enable-coprocesses
9470 Include support for coprocesses and the @code{coproc} reserved word
9471 (@pxref{Pipelines}).
9473 @item --enable-debugger
9474 Include support for the bash debugger (distributed separately).
9476 @item --enable-dev-fd-stat-broken
9477 If calling @code{stat} on /dev/fd/@var{N} returns different results than
9478 calling @code{fstat} on file descriptor @var{N}, supply this option to
9479 enable a workaround.
9480 This has implications for conditional commands that test file attributes.
9482 @item --enable-direxpand-default
9483 Cause the @code{direxpand} shell option (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin})
9484 to be enabled by default when the shell starts.
9485 It is normally disabled by default.
9487 @item --enable-directory-stack
9488 Include support for a @code{csh}-like directory stack and the
9489 @code{pushd}, @code{popd}, and @code{dirs} builtins
9490 (@pxref{The Directory Stack}).
9492 @item --enable-disabled-builtins
9493 Allow builtin commands to be invoked via @samp{builtin xxx}
9494 even after @code{xxx} has been disabled using @samp{enable -n xxx}.
9495 See @ref{Bash Builtins}, for details of the @code{builtin} and
9496 @code{enable} builtin commands.
9498 @item --enable-dparen-arithmetic
9499 Include support for the @code{((@dots{}))} command
9500 (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}).
9502 @item --enable-extended-glob
9503 Include support for the extended pattern matching features described
9504 above under @ref{Pattern Matching}.
9506 @item --enable-extended-glob-default
9507 Set the default value of the @code{extglob} shell option described
9508 above under @ref{The Shopt Builtin} to be enabled.
9510 @item --enable-function-import
9511 Include support for importing function definitions exported by another
9512 instance of the shell from the environment. This option is enabled by
9515 @item --enable-glob-asciirange-default
9516 Set the default value of the @code{globasciiranges} shell option described
9517 above under @ref{The Shopt Builtin} to be enabled.
9518 This controls the behavior of character ranges when used in pattern matching
9519 bracket expressions.
9521 @item --enable-help-builtin
9522 Include the @code{help} builtin, which displays help on shell builtins and
9523 variables (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
9525 @item --enable-history
9526 Include command history and the @code{fc} and @code{history}
9527 builtin commands (@pxref{Bash History Facilities}).
9529 @item --enable-job-control
9530 This enables the job control features (@pxref{Job Control}),
9531 if the operating system supports them.
9533 @item --enable-multibyte
9534 This enables support for multibyte characters if the operating
9535 system provides the necessary support.
9537 @item --enable-net-redirections
9538 This enables the special handling of filenames of the form
9539 @code{/dev/tcp/@var{host}/@var{port}} and
9540 @code{/dev/udp/@var{host}/@var{port}}
9541 when used in redirections (@pxref{Redirections}).
9543 @item --enable-process-substitution
9544 This enables process substitution (@pxref{Process Substitution}) if
9545 the operating system provides the necessary support.
9547 @item --enable-progcomp
9548 Enable the programmable completion facilities
9549 (@pxref{Programmable Completion}).
9550 If Readline is not enabled, this option has no effect.
9552 @item --enable-prompt-string-decoding
9553 Turn on the interpretation of a number of backslash-escaped characters
9554 in the @env{$PS0}, @env{$PS1}, @env{$PS2}, and @env{$PS4} prompt
9555 strings. See @ref{Controlling the Prompt}, for a complete list of prompt
9556 string escape sequences.
9558 @item --enable-readline
9559 Include support for command-line editing and history with the Bash
9560 version of the Readline library (@pxref{Command Line Editing}).
9562 @item --enable-restricted
9563 Include support for a @dfn{restricted shell}. If this is enabled, Bash,
9564 when called as @code{rbash}, enters a restricted mode. See
9565 @ref{The Restricted Shell}, for a description of restricted mode.
9567 @item --enable-select
9568 Include the @code{select} compound command, which allows the generation of
9569 simple menus (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}).
9571 @item --enable-single-help-strings
9572 Store the text displayed by the @code{help} builtin as a single string for
9573 each help topic. This aids in translating the text to different languages.
9574 You may need to disable this if your compiler cannot handle very long string
9577 @item --enable-strict-posix-default
9578 Make Bash @sc{posix}-conformant by default (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}).
9580 @item --enable-translatable-strings
9581 Enable support for @code{$"@var{string}"} translatable strings
9582 (@pxref{Locale Translation}).
9584 @item --enable-usg-echo-default
9585 A synonym for @code{--enable-xpg-echo-default}.
9587 @item --enable-xpg-echo-default
9588 Make the @code{echo} builtin expand backslash-escaped characters by default,
9589 without requiring the @option{-e} option.
9590 This sets the default value of the @code{xpg_echo} shell option to @code{on},
9591 which makes the Bash @code{echo} behave more like the version specified in
9592 the Single Unix Specification, version 3.
9593 @xref{Bash Builtins}, for a description of the escape sequences that
9594 @code{echo} recognizes.
9597 The file @file{config-top.h} contains C Preprocessor
9598 @samp{#define} statements for options which are not settable from
9600 Some of these are not meant to be changed; beware of the consequences if
9602 Read the comments associated with each definition for more
9603 information about its effect.
9605 @node Reporting Bugs
9606 @appendix Reporting Bugs
9608 Please report all bugs you find in Bash.
9609 But first, you should
9610 make sure that it really is a bug, and that it appears in the latest
9612 The latest version of Bash is always available for FTP from
9613 @uref{ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/bash/} and from
9614 @uref{http://git.savannah.gnu.org/cgit/bash.git/snapshot/bash-master.tar.gz}.
9616 Once you have determined that a bug actually exists, use the
9617 @code{bashbug} command to submit a bug report or use the form at the
9618 <a href="https://savannah.gnu.org/projects/bash/">Bash project page</a>.
9619 If you have a fix, you are encouraged to submit that as well!
9620 Suggestions and `philosophical' bug reports may be mailed
9621 to @email{bug-bash@@gnu.org} or @email{help-bash@@gnu.org}.
9623 All bug reports should include:
9626 The version number of Bash.
9628 The hardware and operating system.
9630 The compiler used to compile Bash.
9632 A description of the bug behaviour.
9634 A short script or `recipe' which exercises the bug and may be used
9639 @code{bashbug} inserts the first three items automatically into
9640 the template it provides for filing a bug report.
9642 Please send all reports concerning this manual to
9643 @email{bug-bash@@gnu.org}.
9645 @node Major Differences From The Bourne Shell
9646 @appendix Major Differences From The Bourne Shell
9648 Bash implements essentially the same grammar, parameter and
9649 variable expansion, redirection, and quoting as the Bourne Shell.
9650 Bash uses the @sc{posix} standard as the specification of
9651 how these features are to be implemented. There are some
9652 differences between the traditional Bourne shell and Bash; this
9653 section quickly details the differences of significance. A
9654 number of these differences are explained in greater depth in
9656 This section uses the version of @code{sh} included in SVR4.2 (the
9657 last version of the historical Bourne shell) as the baseline reference.
9662 Bash is @sc{posix}-conformant, even where the @sc{posix} specification
9663 differs from traditional @code{sh} behavior (@pxref{Bash POSIX Mode}).
9666 Bash has multi-character invocation options (@pxref{Invoking Bash}).
9669 Bash has command-line editing (@pxref{Command Line Editing}) and
9670 the @code{bind} builtin.
9673 Bash provides a programmable word completion mechanism
9674 (@pxref{Programmable Completion}), and builtin commands
9675 @code{complete}, @code{compgen}, and @code{compopt}, to
9679 Bash has command history (@pxref{Bash History Facilities}) and the
9680 @code{history} and @code{fc} builtins to manipulate it.
9681 The Bash history list maintains timestamp information and uses the
9682 value of the @code{HISTTIMEFORMAT} variable to display it.
9685 Bash implements @code{csh}-like history expansion
9686 (@pxref{History Interaction}).
9689 Bash has one-dimensional array variables (@pxref{Arrays}), and the
9690 appropriate variable expansions and assignment syntax to use them.
9691 Several of the Bash builtins take options to act on arrays.
9692 Bash provides a number of built-in array variables.
9695 The @code{$'@dots{}'} quoting syntax, which expands ANSI-C
9696 backslash-escaped characters in the text between the single quotes,
9697 is supported (@pxref{ANSI-C Quoting}).
9700 Bash supports the @code{$"@dots{}"} quoting syntax to do
9701 locale-specific translation of the characters between the double
9702 quotes. The @option{-D}, @option{--dump-strings}, and @option{--dump-po-strings}
9703 invocation options list the translatable strings found in a script
9704 (@pxref{Locale Translation}).
9707 Bash implements the @code{!} keyword to negate the return value of
9708 a pipeline (@pxref{Pipelines}).
9709 Very useful when an @code{if} statement needs to act only if a test fails.
9710 The Bash @samp{-o pipefail} option to @code{set} will cause a pipeline to
9711 return a failure status if any command fails.
9714 Bash has the @code{time} reserved word and command timing (@pxref{Pipelines}).
9715 The display of the timing statistics may be controlled with the
9716 @env{TIMEFORMAT} variable.
9719 Bash implements the @code{for (( @var{expr1} ; @var{expr2} ; @var{expr3} ))}
9720 arithmetic for command, similar to the C language (@pxref{Looping Constructs}).
9723 Bash includes the @code{select} compound command, which allows the
9724 generation of simple menus (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}).
9727 Bash includes the @code{[[} compound command, which makes conditional
9728 testing part of the shell grammar (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}), including
9729 optional regular expression matching.
9732 Bash provides optional case-insensitive matching for the @code{case} and
9733 @code{[[} constructs.
9736 Bash includes brace expansion (@pxref{Brace Expansion}) and tilde
9737 expansion (@pxref{Tilde Expansion}).
9740 Bash implements command aliases and the @code{alias} and @code{unalias}
9741 builtins (@pxref{Aliases}).
9744 Bash provides shell arithmetic, the @code{((} compound command
9745 (@pxref{Conditional Constructs}),
9746 and arithmetic expansion (@pxref{Shell Arithmetic}).
9749 Variables present in the shell's initial environment are automatically
9750 exported to child processes. The Bourne shell does not normally do
9751 this unless the variables are explicitly marked using the @code{export}
9755 Bash supports the @samp{+=} assignment operator, which appends to the value
9756 of the variable named on the left hand side.
9759 Bash includes the @sc{posix} pattern removal @samp{%}, @samp{#}, @samp{%%}
9760 and @samp{##} expansions to remove leading or trailing substrings from
9761 variable values (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
9764 The expansion @code{$@{#xx@}}, which returns the length of @code{$@{xx@}},
9765 is supported (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
9768 The expansion @code{$@{var:}@var{offset}@code{[:}@var{length}@code{]@}},
9769 which expands to the substring of @code{var}'s value of length
9770 @var{length}, beginning at @var{offset}, is present
9771 (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
9775 @code{$@{@var{var}/[/]}@var{pattern}@code{[/}@var{replacement}@code{]@}},
9776 which matches @var{pattern} and replaces it with @var{replacement} in
9777 the value of @var{var}, is available (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
9780 The expansion @code{$@{!@var{prefix}*@}} expansion, which expands to
9781 the names of all shell variables whose names begin with @var{prefix},
9782 is available (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
9785 Bash has indirect variable expansion using @code{$@{!word@}}
9786 (@pxref{Shell Parameter Expansion}).
9789 Bash can expand positional parameters beyond @code{$9} using
9790 @code{$@{@var{num}@}}.
9793 The @sc{posix} @code{$()} form of command substitution
9794 is implemented (@pxref{Command Substitution}),
9795 and preferred to the Bourne shell's @code{``} (which
9796 is also implemented for backwards compatibility).
9799 Bash has process substitution (@pxref{Process Substitution}).
9802 Bash automatically assigns variables that provide information about the
9803 current user (@env{UID}, @env{EUID}, and @env{GROUPS}), the current host
9804 (@env{HOSTTYPE}, @env{OSTYPE}, @env{MACHTYPE}, and @env{HOSTNAME}),
9805 and the instance of Bash that is running (@env{BASH},
9806 @env{BASH_VERSION}, and @env{BASH_VERSINFO}). @xref{Bash Variables},
9810 The @env{IFS} variable is used to split only the results of expansion,
9811 not all words (@pxref{Word Splitting}).
9812 This closes a longstanding shell security hole.
9815 The filename expansion bracket expression code uses @samp{!} and @samp{^}
9816 to negate the set of characters between the brackets.
9817 The Bourne shell uses only @samp{!}.
9820 Bash implements the full set of @sc{posix} filename expansion operators,
9821 including character classes, equivalence classes, and
9822 collating symbols (@pxref{Filename Expansion}).
9825 Bash implements extended pattern matching features when the @code{extglob}
9826 shell option is enabled (@pxref{Pattern Matching}).
9829 It is possible to have a variable and a function with the same name;
9830 @code{sh} does not separate the two name spaces.
9833 Bash functions are permitted to have local variables using the
9834 @code{local} builtin, and thus useful recursive functions may be written
9835 (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
9838 Variable assignments preceding commands affect only that command, even
9839 builtins and functions (@pxref{Environment}).
9840 In @code{sh}, all variable assignments
9841 preceding commands are global unless the command is executed from the
9845 Bash performs filename expansion on filenames specified as operands
9846 to input and output redirection operators (@pxref{Redirections}).
9849 Bash contains the @samp{<>} redirection operator, allowing a file to be
9850 opened for both reading and writing, and the @samp{&>} redirection
9851 operator, for directing standard output and standard error to the same
9852 file (@pxref{Redirections}).
9855 Bash includes the @samp{<<<} redirection operator, allowing a string to
9856 be used as the standard input to a command.
9859 Bash implements the @samp{[n]<&@var{word}} and @samp{[n]>&@var{word}}
9860 redirection operators, which move one file descriptor to another.
9863 Bash treats a number of filenames specially when they are
9864 used in redirection operators (@pxref{Redirections}).
9867 Bash can open network connections to arbitrary machines and services
9868 with the redirection operators (@pxref{Redirections}).
9871 The @code{noclobber} option is available to avoid overwriting existing
9872 files with output redirection (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
9873 The @samp{>|} redirection operator may be used to override @code{noclobber}.
9876 The Bash @code{cd} and @code{pwd} builtins (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins})
9877 each take @option{-L} and @option{-P} options to switch between logical and
9881 Bash allows a function to override a builtin with the same name, and provides
9882 access to that builtin's functionality within the function via the
9883 @code{builtin} and @code{command} builtins (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
9886 The @code{command} builtin allows selective disabling of functions
9887 when command lookup is performed (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
9890 Individual builtins may be enabled or disabled using the @code{enable}
9891 builtin (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
9894 The Bash @code{exec} builtin takes additional options that allow users
9895 to control the contents of the environment passed to the executed
9896 command, and what the zeroth argument to the command is to be
9897 (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
9900 Shell functions may be exported to children via the environment
9901 using @code{export -f} (@pxref{Shell Functions}).
9904 The Bash @code{export}, @code{readonly}, and @code{declare} builtins can
9905 take a @option{-f} option to act on shell functions, a @option{-p} option to
9906 display variables with various attributes set in a format that can be
9907 used as shell input, a @option{-n} option to remove various variable
9908 attributes, and @samp{name=value} arguments to set variable attributes
9909 and values simultaneously.
9912 The Bash @code{hash} builtin allows a name to be associated with
9913 an arbitrary filename, even when that filename cannot be found by
9914 searching the @env{$PATH}, using @samp{hash -p}
9915 (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
9918 Bash includes a @code{help} builtin for quick reference to shell
9919 facilities (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
9922 The @code{printf} builtin is available to display formatted output
9923 (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
9926 The Bash @code{read} builtin (@pxref{Bash Builtins})
9927 will read a line ending in @samp{\} with
9928 the @option{-r} option, and will use the @env{REPLY} variable as a
9929 default if no non-option arguments are supplied.
9930 The Bash @code{read} builtin
9931 also accepts a prompt string with the @option{-p} option and will use
9932 Readline to obtain the line when given the @option{-e} option.
9933 The @code{read} builtin also has additional options to control input:
9934 the @option{-s} option will turn off echoing of input characters as
9935 they are read, the @option{-t} option will allow @code{read} to time out
9936 if input does not arrive within a specified number of seconds, the
9937 @option{-n} option will allow reading only a specified number of
9938 characters rather than a full line, and the @option{-d} option will read
9939 until a particular character rather than newline.
9942 The @code{return} builtin may be used to abort execution of scripts
9943 executed with the @code{.} or @code{source} builtins
9944 (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
9947 Bash includes the @code{shopt} builtin, for finer control of shell
9948 optional capabilities (@pxref{The Shopt Builtin}), and allows these options
9949 to be set and unset at shell invocation (@pxref{Invoking Bash}).
9952 Bash has much more optional behavior controllable with the @code{set}
9953 builtin (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
9956 The @samp{-x} (@option{xtrace}) option displays commands other than
9957 simple commands when performing an execution trace
9958 (@pxref{The Set Builtin}).
9961 The @code{test} builtin (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins})
9962 is slightly different, as it implements the @sc{posix} algorithm,
9963 which specifies the behavior based on the number of arguments.
9966 Bash includes the @code{caller} builtin, which displays the context of
9967 any active subroutine call (a shell function or a script executed with
9968 the @code{.} or @code{source} builtins). This supports the Bash
9972 The @code{trap} builtin (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}) allows a
9973 @code{DEBUG} pseudo-signal specification, similar to @code{EXIT}.
9974 Commands specified with a @code{DEBUG} trap are executed before every
9975 simple command, @code{for} command, @code{case} command,
9976 @code{select} command, every arithmetic @code{for} command, and before
9977 the first command executes in a shell function.
9978 The @code{DEBUG} trap is not inherited by shell functions unless the
9979 function has been given the @code{trace} attribute or the
9980 @code{functrace} option has been enabled using the @code{shopt} builtin.
9981 The @code{extdebug} shell option has additional effects on the
9984 The @code{trap} builtin (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}) allows an
9985 @code{ERR} pseudo-signal specification, similar to @code{EXIT} and @code{DEBUG}.
9986 Commands specified with an @code{ERR} trap are executed after a simple
9987 command fails, with a few exceptions.
9988 The @code{ERR} trap is not inherited by shell functions unless the
9989 @code{-o errtrace} option to the @code{set} builtin is enabled.
9991 The @code{trap} builtin (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}) allows a
9992 @code{RETURN} pseudo-signal specification, similar to
9993 @code{EXIT} and @code{DEBUG}.
9994 Commands specified with a @code{RETURN} trap are executed before
9995 execution resumes after a shell function or a shell script executed with
9996 @code{.} or @code{source} returns.
9997 The @code{RETURN} trap is not inherited by shell functions unless the
9998 function has been given the @code{trace} attribute or the
9999 @code{functrace} option has been enabled using the @code{shopt} builtin.
10002 The Bash @code{type} builtin is more extensive and gives more information
10003 about the names it finds (@pxref{Bash Builtins}).
10006 The Bash @code{umask} builtin permits a @option{-p} option to cause
10007 the output to be displayed in the form of a @code{umask} command
10008 that may be reused as input (@pxref{Bourne Shell Builtins}).
10011 Bash implements a @code{csh}-like directory stack, and provides the
10012 @code{pushd}, @code{popd}, and @code{dirs} builtins to manipulate it
10013 (@pxref{The Directory Stack}).
10014 Bash also makes the directory stack visible as the value of the
10015 @env{DIRSTACK} shell variable.
10018 Bash interprets special backslash-escaped characters in the prompt
10019 strings when interactive (@pxref{Controlling the Prompt}).
10022 The Bash restricted mode is more useful (@pxref{The Restricted Shell});
10023 the SVR4.2 shell restricted mode is too limited.
10026 The @code{disown} builtin can remove a job from the internal shell
10027 job table (@pxref{Job Control Builtins}) or suppress the sending
10028 of @code{SIGHUP} to a job when the shell exits as the result of a
10032 Bash includes a number of features to support a separate debugger for
10036 The SVR4.2 shell has two privilege-related builtins
10037 (@code{mldmode} and @code{priv}) not present in Bash.
10040 Bash does not have the @code{stop} or @code{newgrp} builtins.
10043 Bash does not use the @env{SHACCT} variable or perform shell accounting.
10046 The SVR4.2 @code{sh} uses a @env{TIMEOUT} variable like Bash uses
10052 More features unique to Bash may be found in @ref{Bash Features}.
10055 @appendixsec Implementation Differences From The SVR4.2 Shell
10057 Since Bash is a completely new implementation, it does not suffer from
10058 many of the limitations of the SVR4.2 shell. For instance:
10063 Bash does not fork a subshell when redirecting into or out of
10064 a shell control structure such as an @code{if} or @code{while}
10068 Bash does not allow unbalanced quotes. The SVR4.2 shell will silently
10069 insert a needed closing quote at @code{EOF} under certain circumstances.
10070 This can be the cause of some hard-to-find errors.
10073 The SVR4.2 shell uses a baroque memory management scheme based on
10074 trapping @code{SIGSEGV}. If the shell is started from a process with
10075 @code{SIGSEGV} blocked (e.g., by using the @code{system()} C library
10076 function call), it misbehaves badly.
10079 In a questionable attempt at security, the SVR4.2 shell,
10080 when invoked without the @option{-p} option, will alter its real
10081 and effective @sc{uid} and @sc{gid} if they are less than some
10082 magic threshold value, commonly 100.
10083 This can lead to unexpected results.
10086 The SVR4.2 shell does not allow users to trap @code{SIGSEGV},
10087 @code{SIGALRM}, or @code{SIGCHLD}.
10090 The SVR4.2 shell does not allow the @env{IFS}, @env{MAILCHECK},
10091 @env{PATH}, @env{PS1}, or @env{PS2} variables to be unset.
10094 The SVR4.2 shell treats @samp{^} as the undocumented equivalent of
10098 Bash allows multiple option arguments when it is invoked (@code{-x -v});
10099 the SVR4.2 shell allows only one option argument (@code{-xv}). In
10100 fact, some versions of the shell dump core if the second argument begins
10104 The SVR4.2 shell exits a script if any builtin fails; Bash exits
10105 a script only if one of the @sc{posix} special builtins fails, and
10106 only for certain failures, as enumerated in the @sc{posix} standard.
10109 The SVR4.2 shell behaves differently when invoked as @code{jsh}
10110 (it turns on job control).
10113 @node GNU Free Documentation License
10114 @appendix GNU Free Documentation License
10122 * Builtin Index:: Index of Bash builtin commands.
10123 * Reserved Word Index:: Index of Bash reserved words.
10124 * Variable Index:: Quick reference helps you find the
10126 * Function Index:: Index of bindable Readline functions.
10127 * Concept Index:: General index for concepts described in
10131 @node Builtin Index
10132 @appendixsec Index of Shell Builtin Commands
10135 @node Reserved Word Index
10136 @appendixsec Index of Shell Reserved Words
10139 @node Variable Index
10140 @appendixsec Parameter and Variable Index
10143 @node Function Index
10144 @appendixsec Function Index
10147 @node Concept Index
10148 @appendixsec Concept Index